
GlassT X (n L 3 
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COPYRIGHT DEPOSfT. 



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DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Principles and Application 



A TEXTBOOK 

— FOR— 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



BY 

PEARL L. BAILEY 



Formerly Supervisor of Domestic Science and Domestic Art 
in the Saint Paul Public Scfools 



REVISED 




'j^<U3 



153 



-1 



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COPYRIGHT 1914, 1918, 
BY 
VvEBB PUBLISHING COMPAN\ 

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©CI. A 6 24 38 9 
SEP (6/32/ 






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PREFACE 

DOMESTIC SCIENCE in public schools, to be of 
greatest value, must give the pupils a practical 
knowledge of foods and the principles which un- 
derlie their preparation for the table, and at the same 
time train the pupils to apply the principles intelligently. 

This textbook is arranged to meet the needs of schools 
having a two-year course in Domestic Science, and an 
effort has been made to present the fundamental principles, 
together with their application, in a simple, natural sequence 
that is adapted to the needs of the large majority of public 
and private schools. 

A text of this kind does awav witn the keeping of 
elaborate notebooks on the part of the pupils, saves for 
more important things the time used in dictating notes, 
and makes the work more permanent and uniform through- 
out. 

The arrangement of the subject matter by lessons does 
not necessarily limit the course to 64 lessons. If the 
students are old enough, additional reading may be used 
to supplement the subject matter, and several recipes are 
given under each application to afford plenty of practical 
work for classes having more than one lesson each week. 
The usual length of the class period is 1J^ hours, and one 
recipe is all that can be done well in that time. 

The course begins with a preliminary lesson for organ- 
ization and for acquainting the pupils with the kitchen, 
utensils, and the general instructions for working and care 
of equipment. It is not intended that all the instructions 

(v) 



vi PREFACE 

contained in this lesson be given at one time, but may be 
referred to from time to time. The application exercises 
under this lesson should be given. 

Owing to the length of the cooking period, it is necessary 
in most cases to start the cooking process before consider- 
ing the principles. Definite assignment of work and pro- 
portionment of materials, with explanation sufficient for 
beginning the work, should precede each exercise, and the 
main discussion or recitation must accompany or follow the 
application. Students are most interested in the per- 
formance of an experiment or a cooking process, and when 
the practice precedes the recitation they learn to think 
and do for themselves, and therefore get a better under- 
standing of the theory. 

The food principles form the basis for the lessons, which 
are arranged to deal first with the simpler food materials, 
and the progression to the more complex food combinations 
is gradual and practical. 

The recipes included in this text have been gathered 
from various sources and adapted to the course in school 
cookery as here outlined, and have been found to be both 
economical and reliable. Portions for an average family 
are given in each recipe, and for convenience in class-room 
work the basis for two girls working together is also stated. 

The average cost per capita of the lessons as here given, 
according to the present-day prices, approximates 2 to 3 
cents a lesson. 

The working out, by the pupils, of tPfe accurate amounts 
for the small rules on the basis for two affords good practice 
and drill and tends to fix the table of measures more 
firmly in mind. It is a great mistake for teachers to make 
the computations for the class. The aim is to train pupils 
to think for themselves and do for themselves. Better 



PREFACE vii 

spoil a dish in the making than deprive the pupils of the 
experience of doing the actual work themselves. It is not 
necessary for pupils to memorize recipes: only general 
proportions and methods are essential. 

It is well to introduce the lesson on digestion early in 
the course, whenever time permits. Knowledge of the 
meaning of digestion and absorption is necessary for a full 
understanding of the food values given with each subject, 
and should be referred to often. 

No demonstration lessons are outlined, but demonstra- 
tion, by the teacher, of various steps involved in a lesson 
is frequently necessary. When given it should immediately 
precede the work by the class. This is especially true of 
the omelet lesson, as well as in the lessons involving the 
manipulation (kneading, shaping) of dough, rolling out of 
pastry, cookies, doughnuts, etc. 

Marketing trips are of great value to a class, and the 
inspection of flour mills, dairies, canning factories, etc., 
arouses interest and adds greatly to the value of the work. 
Several such excursions should be made, if possible. 

The table service, menu building and marketing lessons 
afford a splendid course to round out the work and afford 
practical application of the knowledge acquired during the 
entire course. By this work relative food values and the 
cost of foods are established more firmly in mind, and the 
school and home are brought into closer relation. 

The lesson on emergencies and "first aid" places in- 
formation in the hands of the student that is valuable to 
both boys and girls, and can be given at any time that 
opportunity affords. 

Invalid cookery and diet is often made a separate course 
and, combined with home nursing, makes a very practical 
and interesting one. Diets and dishes suitable for all 



viii PREFACE 

occasions are given in this text, together with a few invalid 
recipes not classified under other subjects. Girls should be 
able to prepare most invalid rules after a two-year course 
of training as here outlined. 

It is sometimes advisable to change the order of les- 
sons to suit the price and season conditions, as, for example, 
the egg lessons. If, however, these are placed further on 
in the text, at least some demonstration work in eggs 
should be given to precede quick breads, where eggs are 
called for. 

Girls frequently lose interest in the meat lessons where 
the sequence is continuous. This result may be avoided 
if the lessons on gelatine jellies, leftovers, and a review 
lesson on quick breads are brought in following the beef 
or lamb lessons. 

This edition has been revised to include material on 
the cold pack method of canning vegetables and fruits, 
100 calorie portions of common foods, tables and lists of 
foods with their ash constituents, together with many 
changes in recipes to conform to the more thorough applica- 
tion of the principles involved and to the unusual economic 
food conditions now prevailing, when it is advisable to 
use butter and flour substitutes in all recipes as far as 
possible. 

The tables of food composition, food requirements, etc., 
quoted throughout this book are taken from bulletins of 
the United States Department of Agriculture. 

PEARL L. BAILEY. 
Saint Paul, Minnesota, 
December, 1920 



CONTENTS 



FIRST YEAR 

Page 

Preliminary Lesson. Cooking Uniform. Housekeepers' 

Directions • . * 

Description of uniform. Housekeepers' duties. Cleansing 
agents. Care of equipment. 
Lesson 1. Life Essentials. Further Working Directions 15 
Air. Water. Food — definition, classification, and functions. 
Tables of abbreviations and measures. Rules for working. 

Lesson 2. Heat. Combustion. Fuel ..... 27 
Study of fire. Fuel. Stoves and ranges and their care. 
Electric appliances. Fireless cookers. Application. 

Lesson 3. Cooking. Carbohydrates— Potatoes . . 37 
Methods of cooking. Study of starch. Study of the potato. 
Application — cooking potatoes. 
Lesson 4. Carbohydrates — Vegetables .... 44 

Vegetables — classes, composition, food value, rules for cook- 
ing. White sauces. Application — cooking vegetables; medium 
white sauce. 
Lesson 5. Carbohydrates — Cereals. Rice . . . . 52 
Cereals — kinds, composition, structure, food value, time for 
cooking. Rice — cultivation, food value. Application — cooking 
cereals: boiling, steaming. 
Lesson 6. Carbohydrates— Cereals. Wheat ... 58 
Wheat — production, kinds, structure, composition, food value. 
Macaroni. Application — cooking macaroni; buttered crumbs; 
tomato sauce. 
Digestion and its Relation to Cookery . .63 

Purpose of digestion. How food is dissolved. Relation of 
cookery to digestion. Outline table. 

Lesson 7. Carbohydrates — Fruit . . . 67 

Fruit, fresh and dried — composition, food value, cooking. 
Application — cooking apples, cranberries, prunes; fruit cock- 
tails. 

(us) 



x CONTENTS 

Page 

Lesson 8. Soups 72 

Soups with and without stock — general proportions and 
directions, food value. White sauce. Application — cream 
soups; croutons. 

Lesson 9. Protein — Eggs 75 

Eggs — structure, composition, food value, testing, care, pre- 
servation. Effect of heat on albumen. Application — cooking 
eggs. 
Lesson 10. Protein — Eggs (continued) .... 81 

How to break eggs. Combining mixtures — stirring, beating, 
folding. Application — omelets: demonstration and class work. 

Lesson 11. Protein — Milk 86 

Milk — composition, food value, purchase and care, souring, 
pasteurizing. Condensed milk. Application — custards, boiled 
and baked. 

Lesson 12. Milk Products 92 

Cream, skim milk, butter, butter substitutes, cheese — kinds, 
composition, food value. Application — cheese dishes: souffle; 
cottage cheese; Welsh rarebit. 

Lesson 13. Beverages 101 

Tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa — sources, composition, food 
value, preparation for market and table. Application — tea; 
coffee (demonstration); chocolate. 

Lesson 14. Quick Breads — Thin Batters .... 108 
Batters and doughs. Leavening agents. Mixing and baking 
quick breads. Application — (air and steam as leavening agents) 
thin batters: pop-overs; griddle cakes. 

Lesson 15. Quick Breads — Baking Powder . . . . 113 
Baking powder — composition and action, kinds, proportion 
with flour. Application — thick batters: muffins. 

Lesson 16. Quick Breads — Thick Batters . . . . 117 
Corn — kinds, composition, corn products, food value. Appli- 
cation — (soda and acid as leavening agents) corn bread; corn- 
meal muffins. 

Lesson 17. Quick Breads — Soda 121 

Action of soda, proportions. Application — gingerbread. 

Lesson 18. Quick Breads — Soft Dough .... 123 

Flour — kinds, manufacture, composition, testing. Applica- 
tion — baking powder biscuit. 

Lesson 19. Varieties of Baking Powder Biscuit Dough . 127 
Varieties for desserts. Application — fruit shortcakes. 



CONTENTS xi 

Page 

Lesson 20. Varieties of Baking Powder Biscuit Dough (con.) 129 

Application — apple dumplings. 
Lesson 21. Steamed Mixtures 131 

General directions, time for steaming. Application — steamed 
Boston brown bread; quick individual puddings. 

Lesson 22. Yeast — Bread 133 

Yeast — source, growth, kinds, action. Bread — ingredients, meth- 
ods of making, baking. Suggestions. Application — quick process. 

Lesson 23. Bread — Rolls 141 

Objects of kneading and baking. Kinds of rolls. Sugges- 
tions to teachers. Application — rolls; German coffeecake. 

Lesson 24. Protein — Meat 144 

Meat — structure, composition, food value, object of cooking. 
Soups — kinds, food value, cuts used for, proportions. Applica- 
tion — brown soup stock; bouillon; vegetable soup. 

Lesson 25. Protein — Beef 151 

Cuts of beef, cost, appearance, care, retaining juices, broil- 
ing, roasting. Application — broiling (oven demonstration). 

Lesson 26. Protein — Beef (continued) . . . . 157 

Food value of beef. What to serve with beef. Application 
— pan broiling steak. 

Lesson 27. Protein — Beef (continued) .... 159 

Cooking tough meats and left-overs — stewing. Application 
— beef stew; dumplings; hash. 

Lesson 28. Protein — Veal and Mutton .... 164 
Veal — appearance, cuts, food value, cost. Lamb. Mutton 
— cuts, cost, food value. What to serve with them. Applica- 
tion — lamb chops; breaded veal. 

Lesson 29. Protein — Pork 170 

Pork — cuts, food value, time for cooking, cost, what to serve 
with. Application — cooking pork; liver and bacon. 

Lesson 30. Protein — Poultry 175 

Chicken — selection, dressing, cutting, food value, what to 
serve with. Application — roast chicken with stuffing. 

Lesson 31. Protein — Gelatin 180 

Gelatin — source, commercial forms, effects of hot and cold 
water on, food value, directions for use. Application — gelatin 
jellies; desserts. 
Lesson 32. Meat Substitutes ...... 184 

Diversity of foods in which protein exists. Application — 
souffles and scalloped dishes. 



xii CONTENTS 

SECOND YEAR 

Pack 

Lesson 1. Preservation of Food — Canning Fruit . . 189 
Bacteria. Reasons and methods for preserving food. Can- 
ning — principles, jars, directions. Application — canning peaches 
and pears. 

Lesson 2. Preservation of Food — Canning Vegetables . 198 
Selection and preparation of vegetables. Methods of can- 
ning — intermittent heating, long boiling. Application — canned 
tomatoes, asparagus, beans. 

Lesson 3. Preservation of Food — Jellies, etc. . . 202 

Jelly making — fruit, utensils, methods. Preserves, jams, and 
marmalades. Application — currant jelly; apple jelly. 

Lesson 4. Preservation of Food — Pickling . . . 210 
Condiments and spices. Materials, directions, proportions, 
etc., for pickling. Application — peach, green tomato, and cu- 
cumber pickles. 

Lesson 5. Doughs — Cookies 215 

Proportions of ingredients. Variations in cookie mixtures. 
Application — sugar cookies. 

Lesson 6. Drop Batters — Cookies 218 

Application — drop cookies, chocolate cookies, rocks. 

Lesson 7. Fats and Oils. Frying Uncooked Mixtures . 220 

Fats and oils — source, food value. Trying out fat; clarify- 
ing; tests for frying. Application — doughnuts; fritters. 

Lesson 8. Frying Cooked Mixtures 226 

Croquettes — general proportions, thick white sauce, egging, 
crumbing. Application — croquettes: potato, rice, meat. 

Lesson 9. Pastry 229 

Essentials, proportions, methods, two-crust pies, time for bak- 
ing. Application — two-crust pies: apple. 

Lesson 10. Pastry (continued) 235 

Food value of pastry. One-crust pies. Tins. Application 
— lemon pie; custard pie. 

Lesson 11. Carbohydrates — Sugar, Candy .... 238 
Sugar — sources, kinds, manufacture, forms, food value, effects 
of heat on. Application — candy. 

Lesson 12. Protein — Fish 243 

Fish — composition, kinds, structure, food value, appearance, 
cleaning, skinning, boning, cooking. Application — baked fish 
(demonstration); fish sauces. 



CONTENTS xiii 

Page 

Lesson 13. Protein — Fish (continued) 249 

Application — frying, sauteing, broiling fish. 

Lesson 14. Protein — Fish (continued) 252 

Preservation and cost of fish. Left-overs. Application — 
creamed codfish; fish croquettes; fish balls. 

Lesson 15. Protein — Shellfish 254 

Oysters — source, season, growth, food value, to open, to clean, 
blue points. Clams, lobsters, shrimps. Application — cooking 
oysters: stews, fried. 

Lesson 16. Salads 259 

Essentials of a salad, points in favor, garnishing, salad dress- 
ings, what to serve with salads. Application — salad dressings; 
salads. 

Lesson 17. Cakes without Butter 264 

Cake — classes, rules for making, utensils, oven tests. Applica- 
tion — sponge cake and angel food. 

Lesson 18. Cakes with Butter 268 

Method of mixing, oven tests, pans, frosting, proportions of 
materials, variations. Application — plain cake; cup cakes. 

Lesson 19. Layer Cakes 271 

Points of a good cake, time for baking. Application — choco- 
late and white cakes; frostings. 

Lesson 20. Loaf Cakes 273 

Time for baking loaf cakes. Application — gold, caramel, and 
nut cakes. 

Lesson 21. Hot Desserts — Puddings 276 

Methods of cooking, preparation of materials. Application 
— suet and bread puddings; pudding sauces. 

Lesson 22. Cold Desserts 280 

Application — floating island; chocolate cream pudding; prune 
whip. 

Lesson 23. Sandwiches 282 

Materials, shapes, preparation, serving. 24 suggestions for 
sandwiches. Application — egg and meat sandwiches. 

Lesson 24. Frozen Mixtures — Ices 286 

Classes of frozen mixtures. Ices — classes. The freezing mix- 
ture. Methods of freezing and packing. Application — ices 
and sherbets. 



X lv CONTEXTS 

Lesson 25. Frozen Mixtures— Ice Cream .... 290 

Classes of ice cream and other frozen desserts. Cream; 
custards. Molding fancy shapes. Application — ice cream with 
custard foundation. 
Lesson 26. Frozen Mixtures (continued) .... 295 
Whipping cream. Charlottes. Application — charlotte russe; 
mousse. 
Lesson 27. Table Service and Etiquette .... 298 
Furnishing of the dining room. Table appointments. Table 
setting. Serving — styles and rules. Application. 

Lesson 28. Dietaries — Planning Menus .... 314 
Selection of food. Food reauirements and nutritive ratio*. 
Tables of 100-calorie portions. Breakfasts, luncheons, and 
dinners. Application. 

Lesson 29. Menu Building , 326 

Factors governing plans, rules for making, foundation menus. 

Lesson 30. Marketing . . . ..... 342 

Rules for marketing, market chart, application. 

Lesson 31. Home Management. Household Accounts . 346 
The home; importance of good management. Accounts. 
Application. 

Lesson 32. Invalid Cookery 350 

Classification of dietaries. Rules for serving the sick. Appli- 
cation — dishes for the sick. 

APPENDIX- 
EMERGENCIES and First Aid 355 

Score Cards for Judging . 360 

Tables 361 



Domestic Science: Principles and 
Application 



FIRST YEAR 



PRELIMINARY LESSON 

THE COOKING UNIFORM. HOUSEKEEPERS' 
DIRECTIONS 

Each girl must be provided with a complete uniform. 
This consists of a white apron, white cap, hand towel, bag, 
and holder. 

MAKING THE UNIFORM 

The cooking apron is made of white India linen or lawn. 
The amount for each apron depends on the size of the girl. 
Measure the length of the dress and add 14 inches for the 
hem and for growth; take twice the length for the skirt and 
allow one yard more for the straps and bib. 

Divide one of the lengths for the skirt lengthwise through 
the center. Sew a half width to each side of the whole 
width with selvages together. Hem sides with J^-inch 
hem, and the bottom with a 3-inch hem. Gather apron 
for belt. 

The bib is a square piece 8 by 8 inches or 9 by 9 length- 
wise of cloth, lengthwise of the apron. Turn \y± inches of 

hem along top; hemstitch. 
— i m 



2 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The straps are 4 inches wide and long enough to reach 
from the belt in front across to the belt in back; set in bib 
to the straps in front, and over-hand straps shut. 

The belt is made of two pieces 2 inches wide and the 
length of the waist measure plus l}/£ inches for the lap. 
Sew the belt to the bib portion first and then to the skirt. 

The pocket is 5 by 4 inches and is backstitched to the 
right side of the apron convenient to the hand. 

The cooking cap is made of the same material as the 
apron. Cut a circle of material 18 inches in diameter. Cut 
a band 4 inches wide and the length of the size of the head 
straight around the forehead. Allow 1 inch for shrinkage. 
Gather the top in quarters, and sew band together at the 
ends; quarter band, and sew band to the cap. Hem down 
on the inside. The seam of the band is the center of the 
back. 

The hand towel is made of z /± yard of white huck towel- 
ing, or blue and white glass toweling. Turn J^-inch hems 
at both ends; hem with damask hem. Set in 3^-inch tape, 
4 inches long, in the hem at one end, with which to button 
the towel to the belt. 

The holder is made of two pieces of white cotton cloth 
6 by 6 inches. For padding, use two thicknesses of white 
cotton flannel 5 by 5 inches. Pin and sew pieces together, 
overhand the outer cover over the lining. Inset a tape 30 
inches long at one corner; make a loop at one end of tape, 
to button the holder to the belt. 

The bag is made of % yard of blue percale. Use full 
width of the material. Make a 2-inch hem in the top, with 
a 1-inch casing. Make two white tape draw-strings each 
one yard. Mark each piece plainly. 



DUTIES OF HOUSEKEEPERS 3 

DUTIES OF HOUSEKEEPERS 

Two members of the class may be assigned at the 
beginning of each lesson to perform the housekeeping 
duties. These girls may be called Housekeeper No. 1 and 
Housekeeper No. 2, each serving a section of the class. The 
students on the immediate right of the girls appointed make 
double portions in cooking, for the benefit of the house- 
keepers. 

Housekeeper No. 1, Section I, performs the following 
duties : — 

1. Bring out the supplies for Section I. 

2. Pass dish cloths and towels. 

3. If ovens are to be used, get ovens for Section I. 

4. Wash out half the towels that are soaked. House- 

keeper in afternoon classes put day's towels to 
soak. 

5. Straighten the shelves in the pantry. 

6. Wipe off the oilcloth with a damp cloth. 

7. See that each desk in Section I is supplied with soap, 

flour, salt, and matches. 

8. Fill the pitchers of Section I with cold water. 

9. Collect garbage from utility pans at the close of 

lesson. 

10. Put away supplies at the close of lesson. 

11. Sweep floor around Section I. 

12. Clean the sink, soap dish and sink strainer at sink 

No. 1 when the class is through. 

13. Arrange the curtains evenly at the close of the les- 

son. 

14. Set the garbage can out for the janitor. See that 

the can is scalded each week and set in the sun 

and air. 

l— 



4 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Housekeeper No. 2, Section II, performs the following 
duties: — 

1. Bring out the supplies. 

2. Pass dish cloths and towels. 

3. Place gas ovens, if a baking lesson. 

4. Rinse towels washed by Housekeeper No. 1. 

5. Hang towels on a clothes rack to dry. 

6. Wipe off and polish the gas range. 

7. Clean the ice box; empty any dishes that may need 

attention. (Note. — Keep milk and butter in the 
lower part of the box.) 

8. Clean all ovens and tea kettles. 

9. On Friday, scald out the ice box and wipe off the 

shelves. See that the trap is clean. 

10. See that each desk is supplied with soap, flour, salt, 

and matches. 

11. Pass drinking water to Section II. 

12. Collect the garbage from utility pans. 

13. Put away all supplies. 

14. Sweep floor around Section II. 

15. Clean sink, soap dish, and strainer of sink No. 2. 

16. Dust the moldings of the room, all ledges, and furni- 

ture. 

17. Afternoon class close and lock the windows. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 

Dust and Its Dangers. — There are two kinds of dust, 
living and lifeless. For the most part the dust we find in 
our homes or schools is made up largely of earth or other 
matter in such small particles that it can be carried by the 
wind. It is present everywhere. Carried in this lifeless 
dust we find a living, invisible dust, called germs or microbes. 
These germs are the smallest living plants, and are so small 



INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 5 

that it takes a powerful microscope, enlarging them at least 
fifty times, to make them visible. 

There are three classes of these little microscopic 
plants; namely, molds, yeasts, and bacteria. Some of these, 
as you already know, are very useful to us, such as the 
yeast plant, in making bread. Others produce dangerous 
poisons that cause disease . 

What Hastens Germ Growth. — Things necessary for the 
growth of most molds and bacteria are dark, damp, unclean 
places, and food and warmth. Can you name some such 
places? 

For this reason it is always necessary to try to keep 
our houses and ourselves as clean as possible in order to 
destroy or to prevent the growth of these germs. 

What Stops Germ Growth. — Anything that destroys 
these living plants, or micro-organisms, is called a disinfect- 
ant. There are two kinds of disinfectants:— 

1. Physical, or natural, disinfectants; as, sunshine and 
heat. 

2. Chemical disinfectants, or those that act chemically 
upon the bacteria; as, carbolic acid, formaldehyde, strong 
acids and alkalies. 

Some substances prevent the growth of germs, and are 
called antiseptics and preservatives. Some of these are 
borax, salt, peroxide, sirups, and many others. We shall 
learn more about some of these later. 

Dust or dirt, then, is not only objectionable to look 
upon when it is about the floor, the furniture, and persons, 
but one never can tell what germs it may contain that may 
do us harm if they enter our bodies. Certain kinds of bac- 
teria in the body produce diseases, such as diphtheria, 
typhoid fever, and tuberculosis. 



6 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

At all times let us each observe the rules of cleanliness, 
and avoid any habits that hinder the having of clean, 
wholesome food, a clean house and school to live in, and a 
healthy mind and body. 

CLEANSING AGENTS 

(a) Water is the most important cleansing agent, for it 
dissolves more substances than any other liquid. 

Water is hard or soft. The hardness depends upon the 
amount of calcium (lime) or other salts it contains. Soft 
water is best for cleansing, since neither soap nor dirt dis- 
solves readily in hard water. 

To soften water, certain softening agents are added, such 
as borax, sal soda, ammonia, potash or lye. Temporary 
hard water can be softened by boiling. 

(b) Cleaning powders are of two kinds, — those that are 
mechanical and those that are chemical in their action. 
The mechanical powders contain minerals that assist in 
cleaning by producing friction. Among these are: — 

(1) White sand, for scouring iron and wood. 

(2) Bath brick, for scouring steel knives. 

(3) Rotten stone, for copper, brass, and tin. 

(4) Whiting, for silver, aluminum, and brass. 

(5) Commercial preparations on the market, which are 
very good for cleaning and come in very convenient form 
ready for use. 

The chemical cleaning agents are chiefly alkalies, which 
are most important in the removal of grease. Any alkali 
unites with grease to form a compound soluble in water, 
like soap. The chemical substances used for cleaning are : — 

(1) Sal soda, which is very strong, but is best for 
general use. It is cheap and is the basis of most washing 
powders, which cost many times their value. To use sal 



INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 7 

soda, dissolve one pound in a quart of water over the fire; 
then cook, bottle, and label. Use a little when needed. 

(2) Ammonia, which is not as strong as sal soda, and is 
used chiefly in laundry work, but is very good for general 
cleaning. 

(3) Kerosene. This is useful for cleaning polished 
woods, which alkalies would injure, and may be used in 
many other ways. 

(c) Soap is a combination of an alkali (soda or potash) 
with a fat. Describe the old-fashioned way of making soap. 

There are hard and soft soaps: hard soap is made with 
soda. The harder the fat used, the harder the soap. Soft 
soap is made with potash instead of soda. 

Action of Soap. — When used with water, soap dissolves 
and unites with any grease it touches, and loosens and 
washes away the dust and dirt. 

CARE OF EQUIPMENT 

Care of Dishcloths and Towels. — Have two enamel- 
covered pails in which to soak the towels. Use enough 
warm water to cover them well, and add two tablespoon- 
fuls of cleansall or soap solution. Cover, and let stand 
over night. 

To Wash Towels. — Use warm water, good soap, and a 
wash board. Rub each towel well until all the stains are 
removed. Put the towels in clean, hot suds on the stove 
to scald; bring slowly to a boil and boil 10 minutes; remove 
from the fire, rinse the towels in plenty of clean water, 
wring well, shake out, and hang evenly on the rack to dry. 
Place in the sun and air, if possible. 

To Remove Stains. — Iron rust is easily removed by dip- 
ping the spot into a solution of oxalic acid and then rinsing 
at once with clear water. Dissolve one teaspoonful of 



8 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

oxalic crystals in H cup of boiling water for the acid solu- 
tion. 

Apply lemon juice and salt to the spot in the direct rays 
of the sun until rust disappears. This takes longer. 

Ink. — Use a solution of oxalic acid for ink, the same as 
for iron rust. The crystals dissolve more quickly in boiling 
water, and the stain disappears more quickly. Rinse thor- 
oughly in clear water after application of acid, or the 
texture of the material will be injured. 

Sweet or sour milk will often remove ink stains. Let 
spot soak in milk several hours, apply more milk, until spot 
disappears. Rinse the material. 

Blood is best removed by soaking the stain in tepid or 
lukewarm water; later rub with soap, and wash out. 

Cocoa stains. — First wash in cold water and then pour 
boiling water through them. 

Coffee stains are removed by placing at once over a 
basin and pouring on boiling water while the stains are 
fresh. The force of the water aids in loosening the stain. 

Fruit stains require the same treatment as coffee stains. 
Alcohol softens and dissolves fruit stains, and does not 
injure the material. 

Grass stains are dissolved by alcohol or camphor and 
may then be washed out with clear water. 

Mildew is a plant mold that grows on the fiber of mate- 
rials. It develops on clothes when they are damp for some 
time in warm weather. If mildew stains are old, they will 
not come out. 

Strong lemon juice and salt put on the spot and exposed 
to the sun for several days will remove light spots of mildew. 
A bleaching agent, as chloride of lime, may be used, but is 
very hard on the fiber of the material. Or, wet the spots 



INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 



with strong soap- 
suds and powdered 
chalk and put in the 
sun for many hours. 

Plumbing. Traps 
— All fixtures, like 
sinks, wash basins, 
closets, tubs, etc., 
are connected with 
a system of pipes 
with the house drain, 
which carries off all 
waste matter to the 
sewer in the street. 
Figure 1 shows an 
approved system of 
house plumbing. No- 
tice the size of pipes 
used and their rela- 
tion to one another 
and to the fixtures. 

A trap is a bend 
in a pipe sufficient 
to retain enough 
water to prevent the 
passage of poisonous 
gases back through 
the pipe into the 
room. Each fixture 
must have a trap lo- 
cated in the waste 
pipe close to the fix- 
ture, and the house 



W<?r>rile>ttort 



WderCto 




7"<=> -Seiwr * 



Fig. 1. A plumbing system for a house, show- 
ing arrangement of fixtures, traps, and pipes. 
(Mo. Eng. Exp. Sta. Bui.) 



10 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 




sewer pipe must be provided with a trap near the street 
sewer. 

Of the many kinds of traps the most commonly used 
are the S trap and the bottle or pot trap. The S trap (See 

illustrations) is perhaps the 
most satisfactory for most 
purposes, for it does not 
contain much water, flushes 
readily, and does not easily 
get out of order. 

A trap may become in- 

— effective because: 1. It 

may not have a deep enough 

bend to retain sufficient 

Fig. 2. A trap. The enclosed water wa ter tO form a Complete 
prevents poisonous sewer gas from entering ^ 

the room. sea ^ 

2. It may be clogged by foreign matter, like lint, 
hair, grease, etc. This will break the seal. 

3. The water may have evaporated from the trap, if 
the fixture has not been used for some time. To prevent 
evaporation, pour sufficient oil in the pipe to cover the 
top of the water. When houses are to be closed for a 
time, this precaution is necessary. 

Inspection. — All plumbing should be inspected fre- 
quently, and should be so constructed as to make this easy. 
All joints should be air-tight, and all traps should be sup- 
plied with means for cleaning. Faulty plumbing is too 
often the cause of serious illness. 

Note. — Carefully inspect the plumbing in your home 
and school. Notice where the traps are located. 

Care of the Ice Box. — Keep the ice box perfectly clean. 
See that the waste from the ice is properly carried off. It 
should drain into an open end of a trapped drain-pipe. See 



INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 11 

that the trap is open and works correctly. Keep a brush 
for cleaning out the trap. Scald out the ice box and trap 
once each week with hot soda or borax water. 

Wipe the ice box dry, and always wipe off the shelves as 
soon as anything is spilled over them. 

Do not put hot food into the ice box; never put food with 
strong odors into the ice box. Keep milk bottles covered 
and keep the milk and butter in the lower part of the box, 
for they absorb odors readily. Do not put unnecessary 
dishes into the ice box. Set the food away in clean dishes, 
and in as small dishes as possible. 

Do not put anything on the top of the ice box; it clutters 
up a room and makes it harder to keep things neat and clean. 

Care of the Sink. — Sinks with open plumbing are best; 
but even the best need constant care. In selecting sinks, 
avoid those with wood around them. Good porcelain sinks, 
with rim and drain board of the same, are the best and the 
easiest to keep clean. Iron sinks are very hard to care for. 

To remove the rust from iron sinks, at night rub all over 
with mutton fat and in the morning rinse well with hot suds. 

Keep a sink strainer in the sink and pour all waste 
liquids through it. Do not put garbage into the sink 
strainer; put it into the garbage can. Sink strainers are for 
liquids only. When through work, empty the strainer, 
wash in hot soapsuds, wipe dry, and hang up. 

Once each week pour a strong solution of sal soda (about 
}/2 cup soda to two quarts water) down the pipes. Flush 
the sinks frequently with plenty of hot soapsuds and boiling 
water. When through work always leave the sinks per- 
fectly clean. Wash them with hot water, using Dutch 
cleanser or sapolio to remove any stains or grease. Rinse 
well and wipe dry. Kerosene cuts any grease readily. 
Rinse well after using. 



12 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Never hang utensils or dishcloths around the sink. 
Only the soap dish and sink strainer need be kept there. 
Never hang anything under the sinks. Wash and rinse all 
sink cloths and hang in the air to dry. 

Care of the Garbage Can. — Each day place a clean news- 
paper in the can. This is easily removed and all the con- 
tents burned, buried, or carried away. Put only solid 
materials in the can. Liquids must first be drained off. 
The can must be kept perfectly fresh. Scald and scrub out 
the can thoroughly each week, and set in the sun and open 
air. Keep can covered when garbage is in it. 

Care of the Pantry. — Closed cupboards are much better 
than open shelves, but are not always available. 

Cover the pantry shelves with oilcloth. Tack it down 
firmly over the edges of the shelves. Oilcloth is easily 
wiped off, and is durable material. Plain white paper 
may be used if oilcloth is too expensive. Renew the paper 
frequently. 

Put like dishes together. Keep all spices and staple 
things together. 

Keep food supplies in covered jars properly labeled. Do 
not leave supplies in sacks. 

Never arrange supplies in more than two rows. This 
saves time and prevents confusion. 

When the last of anything is used, report the fact at 
once to the instructor, or make a note of it. 

Prepare bread crumbs from all dry pieces of bread ; roll 
and sift and keep in covered jars ready for use. 

Watch canned goods and jellies and report any that 
appear to be spoiling. 

Care of the Table. — When the dishes are all washed, 
clean the table by scrubbing with a brush dipped in hot 
water and then in Dutch cleanser or in scouring soap. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 13 

Use little water; scrub thoroughly with the grain of the 
wood. Rinse well and wipe dry as possible with a cloth 
wrung out of clear water. 

See that the edges of the table are kept clean and dry. 

Clean under the stoves thoroughly. 

Ammonia or borax will remove grease spots. Spread 
on the spots and let stand for a few minutes; then rinse with 
cold water. Hot water dissolves grease and drives it into 
the wood. 

Care of Floors and Woodwork. Hardwood Floors. — A 
long-handled soft brush is best for sweeping polished floors. 
A broom with a soft cover made of cotton flannel sewed into 
a bag to fit the broom and tied on with tapes, is a good sub- 
stitute for the brush. 

Use little or no water on hardwood floors. Brush dry. 
Sweep from the outside of the room towards the center; be 
sure corners and baseboards are well dusted. 

Use short strokes of brush or broom, and keep it close 
to the floor to prevent raising a dust. Gather dust into a 
small spot and take up with brush and dustpan; burn, if 
possible, at once. A little oil on the brush or broom bag 
collects the dust together better. 

Sweeping Ordinary Floors. — Sweep dry in the same way 
as with hardwood floors, using an ordinary broom. 

Scrubbing. — Use plenty of hot soapsuds and a stiff 
brush. Do not wet a large surface at a time. Scrub with 
the grain of the wood ; then rinse thoroughly and wipe dry 
with a cloth wrung out of clear water. 

Avoid wetting baseboards, furniture, and doors. 

Grease spots on unfinished wood may be removed by 
covering with borax, letting stand over night, and then 
rinsing off with clear water. 



14 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Carpets. — To sweep, tear old newspapers into small 
pieces, dampen them, and sprinkle over the carpet. Use a 
stiff broom and sweep as in method for hardwood floors, 
taking short strokes to avoid raising dust. A carpet 
sweeper may be used in the center of the room after sides 
are brushed. 

To brighten the carpet, put a few drops of ammonia 
into a little warm water, dip a cloth into it, wring out, and 
rub over the carpet after it has been swept. 

Woodwork. — After sweeping and when the dust has 
settled, wipe off the woodwork carefully, using a soft cotton 
cloth. Hemmed cheesecloth dusters are preferable. Gather 
the dust into the folds of the duster, not stirring the dust 
up in the room, and shake duster out of doors. Dust 
higher objects and woodwork first. 

Chemically-prepared dust cloths are for sale and are 
good for most woodwork, but must not be used on mahog- 
any furniture. 

Care of Brooms, Brushes, and Dust Cloths. — Brooms. — 
In using a broom alternate first one side and then the other, 
so that it wears evenly. Clean broom off after sweeping, 
making it ready for use again. Always hang broom up; do 
not allow it to rest on the bristles. The broom should be 
washed in good warm suds every week to keep it in good 
condition. 

Brushes. — Brushes should be cleaned well after each 
using. Later they may be washed in cold water, but great 
care must be taken not to wet the glue which fastens the 
back of the brush. Dry thoroughly. 

Dust cloths. — Wash dust cloths frequently in hot soap- 
suds, scald, rinse in clear water, and dry in the sun and air. 

Explain why this precaution is always necessary. 



LESSON 1 

LIFE ESSENTIALS— AIR, WATER, FOOD. FURTHER 
WORKING DIRECTIONS 

Three things are essential to life: (1) air, (2) water, 
and (v3) food. In addition, most forms of life need sunlight 
and a favorable temperature. 

AIR 

Air is the most immediate need of the body, since we 
can live but a few minutes without it. 

Composition of Air. — Pure air is composed mainly of 
two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion of 1 part 
of oxygen to about four parts of nitrogen. A certain 
amount of water vapor in the air makes it easier to breathe. 
Impure air may contain, in addition to nitrogen and oxygen, 
harmful gases, dust, and other impurities. 

In dwellings the harmful gas is usually carbon dioxide, 
which is noticeable when the room is poorly ventilated. 

Sources of Carbon Dioxide Gas. — Carbon dioxide gas is 
formed by the union of carbon and oxygen in a process 
called oxidation. This takes place in — 

(1) All burning of carbon material. 

(2) Decaying vegetable and animal life. 

(3) The process of respiration. 

In the latter process the oxygen in the air passes through 
the thin walls of the lungs into the blood, which carries it to 
all parts of the body. The union of this oxygen with the 
carbon in the cell tissues forms carbon dioxide as a waste 
product, which in turn is carried back by the blood to the 
lungs and given off. 

(15) 



16 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Ventilation. — How may pure air be brought into a room 
and the impure air sent out? How is your home venti- 
lated? How is your school ventilated? 

The natural means of ventilation are doors, windows, 
cracks, and chimneys. Special ventilating systems, flues, 
etc., may be spoken of as the artificial means of ventilation. 

WATER 

Water ranks next to air as a supporter of life. Pure 
water is a liquid, clear, odorless, colorless, and almost taste- 
less. 

Composition. — Chemically pure water is composed of 
1 part oxygen to 2 parts of hydrogen. The flavor of drink- 
ing water is due to the mineral salts and carbon dioxide gas 
dissolved in it. 

Sources. — (1) Rain. (2) Surface water, as from rivers, 
brooks, lakes, ponds. (3) Ground water, as from wells, 
open and artesian, and some springs. 

Uses. — Water has many uses. It enters into all plant 
and animal life. It constitutes about three-fourths of the 
weight of the body. 

(a) Uses in the body: — 

1. It quenches thirst. >* 

2. It aids in regulating the body temperature. 

3. It aids digestion, since it forms a part of all the 
digestive secretions of the body, and acts as a solvent; that 
is, dissolves*most substances and reduces them to a condi- 
tion to be of use to the body. 

4. It acts as a carrier. It enters into the formation 
of blood, which carries food to the various parts of the body. 
It also carries off waste materials. 



ESSENTIALS TO LIFE 17 

(b) Uses out of the body: — 

1. In power production. 4. In cooking. 

2. In transportation. 5. For plant growth. 

3. In cleaning. 6. Other uses. 
Kinds. — (1) Soft water, as already explained. 

(2) Hard water, temporary and permanent. 

(3) Mineral water, which is water containing a com- 
paratively large percentage of certain minerals, such as 
soda, sulphur, and iron, and is valuable for medicinal 
purposes. 

Daily Requirement. — An average person requires about 
two quarts of water a day. This is supplied by vegetables, 
meat, and other food, as well as by beverages. 

Temperatures. — Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit (which 
is zero on the Centigrade scale). 
Water simmers at 185° F. 
Water boils at 212° F., or 100° C. 

Impure water cannot always be detected by color, taste, 
or smell. One should always know the source of water 
before using it. Water is contaminated in many ways, 
but the most common are — 

1. In open wells, by surface water and foreign sub- 
stances. 

2. By having water supply too close to outbuildings 
or sewage disposals. Water is purified more or less by 
filtering through the earth, but this does not necessarily 
remove harmful bacteria, especially when the filtering 
distance is short. 

3. By carelessness in diseases. 

To Purify Water. — Water from springs and artesian 
and bored wells is usually pure. 

1. Boiling will purify most water, but this destroys 

—2 



18 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the flavor as well as the bacteria. Pouring boiled water 
from one jar to another partially restores its flavor. 

2. Filtering water through stone filters is quite effec- 
tive. The filters must be thoroughly cleaned frequently 
or they will be worse than none. In city systems water 
is often filtered through large sand beds to purify it. Small 
cloth filters fastened on the faucets do not purify the water. 

Cautions in the Use of Water. — 1. Do not use water 
left standing in open vessels. 

2. Draw off the first water from pipes before using 
any. Water takes up the lead of the pipes when allowed 
to stand in them for any time. 

3. Do not drink water in the dark. 

4. Use freshly boiled water for cooking purposes, 
never that from the hot- water faucet. 

5. Keep all pitchers and water jars washed clean and 
free from the lime deposits that accumulate on the bottom 
and sides. 

FOOD 

Food is anything which taken into the body builds and 
repairs the tissues or furnishes heat and energy. 

Foods contain many elements, but the most important 
are those which enter into the composition of the body; 
as, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, phos- 
phorus, and others. Where have you found these elements 
before? Some of them are more abundant in certain 
foods than in others, and therefore foods perform different 
functions in the body. For this reason we have foods 
classified according to their composition and function. 

Classification of food. — (A) Organic foods, of animal 
and vegetable origin, include — 

1 . Proteins which include — 

a. Albumin, as in the white of egg. 



ESSENTIALS TO LIFE 19 

b. Casein; as, milk curd. 

c. Fibrin; as, lean meat. 

d. Gelatin, as found in sinews and bones, 
c. Extractives, as in the juices of meats. 
/. Gluten, as contained in wheat. 

g. Legumin, as contained in peas and beans. 

2. Carbohydrates, which include— 

a. Starch, as contained in potatoes and cereals. 

b. Sugar; as, cane, beet, and fruit sugars. 

c. Cellulose, the fruit and vegetable fiber. 

3. Fats, including — 

a. Animal fats; as, butter, lard, fat meat. 

b. Vegetable oils; as, olive oil, cottonseed oil. 
(B) Inorganic foods, or those not having animal or 

vegetable origin, include — 

4. Mineral matter, as found in the ash of foods. 

5. Water. — Water is usually not thought of as a food ; it 
is used in tissue building, but it does not give heat or energy. 

Composition and Functions of the Food Classes. — 
Proteins contain nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sul- 
phur, and often phosphorus. 

Because they contain nitrogen, proteins build and 
repair tissues, and are called nitrogenous or tissue-build- 
ing foods. The protein of the body, as contained in the 
muscles, blood, and other tissues, can be built up only from 
the protein of food. Proteins may also be used in the body 
to produce heat and energy. But carbohydrates and fats, 
especially the former, are much cheaper as a source of 
heat and energy, and are much more easily used for this 
purpose in the body. If less protein is eaten than is re- 
quired, the protein of the body itself will be consumed. 
If more protein is eaten than is needed for tissue building, 
the excess is thrown off as waste, the process forming 



20 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Nutrients- 



Non -nutrients. 



Fuel valne. 




Fig. 3. Food chart of comparative composition and fuel value of 
food materials. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) 



ESSENTIALS OF LIFE 21 

harmful' products in the body and enforcing greater work 
on the excretory organs. Excessive consumption of pro- 
tein food is harmful. 

Carbohydrate is the general name for a large class of 
familiar food materials that do not contain nitrogen. In 
order to maintain its temperature and to do work, the 
body must obtain energy, and this is supplied very largely 
by the carbohydrates. Starches and sugars are produced 
in plants on a very generous scale for our use. When 
eaten in excess, carbohydrates are stored in the body as 
fatty tissue. 

Fats and oils are composed of the same elements as car- 
bohydrates; namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and 
are used in the body for the same purpose. The propor- 
tion of carbon is much greater than in carbohydrates, for 
which reason they give about twice as much heat and 
energy. The fats, however, are harder to digest. They 
also add to the fatty tissue. 

Mineral matter, consisting of compounds of sodium, 
lime, iron, potash, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., are found 
principally in cereals, milk, meat, fish, and fruits. Min- 
eral substances enter into the composition of all tissues 
of the body, especially bone and blood, and are very neces- 
sary to young and growing persons. 

Water. (Composition and function given on page 16.) 

Vitamines are disease-preventing substances found in 
various articles of food but which have not yet been isolated 
and whose chemical composition has not yet been deter- 
mined. While it is thought that phosphorus does not enter 
into the molecule of the vitamine, the vitamine and the 
phosphorus content of the food are closely related. If less 
than 4 per cent of the pentoxide (P2O5) of phosphorus is 
present, the food does not have sufficient disease-preventing 



21A DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

properties. Vitamines have no direct relation to the pro- 
tein, fat, and carbohydrates contained in the diet. 

Three vitamines are recognized: (1) fat-soluble A, 
present in butter-fat, cod-liver oil, green leaves, etc. These 
prevent an eye disease called xerophthalmia, and rickets, 
(2) water-soluble B, found principally in plants, and pre- 
venting polyneuritis in birds and beriberi in human beings, 
and (3) water-soluble C, an antiscorbutic vitamine which 
prevents scurvy. All these vitamines are necessary for 
growth as well as for health. 

Fat-Soluble A. Butter-fat is the general source of this 
vitamine. It is also found in the yolks of eggs, yellow 
beef fat, fish oils and pure animal oleomargarines. Of the 
vegetables spinach, and, generally, leafy vegetables, along 
with carrots, sweet potatoes and yellow corn are the rich- 
est in it. The alkali of baking soda, unless counteracted 
by sour milk, destroys this vitamine. 

Experiments have shown that such temperatures as are 
used for ordinary cooking may destroy the essential prop- 
erty of the vitamines. There is, therefore, greater necessity 
for the employment of some of these foods at least in their 
natural state. 

Water-Soluble B. This vitamine is present in milk and 
animal foods in a lesser degree but more widely distributed 
in plants, among which are cereals, legumes, spinach, cab- 
bage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and toma- 
toes. The parts of the cereals which contain the vitamine 
are the germ and the outer coating, or bran, the part that 
in the higher milling process is eliminated. Yeast also is 
a very rich source of this vitamine. 

The effect of cooking temperatures is likely to deterio- 
rate if not to destroy the efficacy of this vitamine. 

Water-Soluble C. This vitamine is not found in yeast, 



ESSENTIALS OF LIFE 21B 

t 

fats, and cereals, in only small quantities in fresh milk and 
meat, and in greatest amounts in fresh fruits and vegetables. 
Raw cabbage, orange juice, and tomatoes are excellent 
antiscorbutics. This vitamine, like the others, is rendered 
practically of no value by high temperatures. Hence boiled 
or pasteurized milk would be deprived of its natural efficacy 
as an antiscorbutic. 

Drying and storing, generally speaking, impair the effec- 
tiveness of all vitamines. 

Bacteria are a group of widely distributed vegetable 
microorganisms of transparent protoplasm. They perform 
a great variety of functions, such as converting dead organic 
matter into soluble food materials for plants, fixing atmos- 
pheric nitrogen in legumes, and causing fermentation and 
disease. Some are helpful; some are harmful. They multi- 
ply, and, often, very rapidly by division. Their growth de- 
pends on their food supply, moisture, and temperature. 
The problem is to control the useful bacteria and to pre- 
vent the multiplication and action of the harmful ones. 
Fresh air, direct sunlight, sterilization, and germicidal agents 
are the principal antagonists. Cleanliness and protection 
are necessary precautions in the case of foods. 

A further treatment of this subject will be found on 
page 189. 

Table of Abbreviations 

For the sake of convenience in cookery, a few abbre- 
viations are used. Those used throughout this text are: 

tsp. for teaspoonful oz. for ounce 

tbsp. for tablespoonful f. g. for few grains 

ssp. for salt spoonful r. for rounded 

c. for cupful h. p. for heaping 

pt. for pint sc. for scant 

qt. for quart min. for minute 

lb. for pound hr. for hour 



22 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Table of Measures 

3 tsp. are equivalent to 1 tbsp. 

12 tbsp. are equivalent to 1 cup wet material 
16 tbsp. are equivalent to 1 cup dry material 
2 c. are equivalent to 1 pt. 
2 pt. are equivalent to 1 qt. 

4 qts. are equivalent to 1 gal. 

8 qt. are equivalent to 1 peck, (dry) 
4 c. (about) flour equal 1 lb. 

2 c. sugar (gran.) equal 1 lb. 

2 c. butter packed solid equal 1 lb. 

2 c. chopped meat equal 1 lb. 

2 tbsp. butter equal 1 oz. 

1 tbsp. sugar equals 1 oz. 

1 tbsp. liquid equals H oz. 

9 or 10 eggs, depending on size, equal 1 lb. 
The juice of 1 lemon equals 3 tbsp. 

All measurements used in this book are level. Great 
care must be taken to measure accurately. 

Directions for Measuring. — 1. For a spoonful, dip the 
spoon into the material, lift it, and level off true with a 
spatula. 

2. For a cupful, fill the cup with the aid of a spoon, and 
level off with a spatula. 

3. For a half spoonful, level off a spoonful and then 
divide lengthwise through the middle. The spoon is 
larger at the back than at the point, and a more accurate 
measure may be obtained in this way. 

4. For one-fourth spoonful, divide the half-spoonful 
cross-wise, dividing a little back of the middle. 

5. For one-eighth spoonful, divide a fourth-spoonful 
diagonally across from center of spoon to outer rim. 

6. In measuring dry material, as flour, baking powder, 
soda, powdered sugar, spices, sift or shake up lightly before 
measuring, and do not dip cup into the material, which 
packs it, but fill with a spoon. 

7. To measure butter or lard, pack solidly into cup with 
a spoon. 



RULES FOR WORKING 



23 



8. A heaping teaspoon or cup means all it will hold. 

9. A scant teaspoon or cup is a little less than level 
measure. 




Fig. 4. Measuring: Y 2 c. liquid, 1 c. dry, y 2 tbsp. dry, K tsp. dry, tbsp. 

butter. 



24 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

RULES FOR WORKING 

1. Wash your hands with soap and water and scrub 
and clean your nails. If you handle anything not clean, 
wash your hands again. 

2. Have your hair neatly fastened back. 

3. Wear no jewelry. 

4. Wear a wash dress, if available. 

5. Never dry dishes with a hand towel or an apron. 

6. Never taste with the mixing spoon. 

7. See that gas or oven will be ready for use at the 
time it is needed. 

8. In beginning work collect all necessary material and 
utensils, also provide a utility plate on which to lay sticky 
knives, etc. 

9. Save dishes by measuring dry material first, then 
liquid, and lastly fats. 

10. Break eggs separately in a cup or saucer, to be sure 
they are fresh. 

11. Save a little milk to rinse the bowl in which the 
eggs are beaten. 

12. Tin dishes and iron spoons will discolor batters; 
so use earthen dishes and wooden spoons. 

13. Do not let vinegar or lemon juice stand in a tin 
cup or dish. 

14. Clean up your work and put egg and batter dishes 
to soak as soon as empty. 

15. Stand egg beaters in cold water, but take care not 
to wet the cogs. 

16. Stir and beat with a tablespoon or mixing spoon, 
never with a teaspoon. 

17. Hang a piece of paper on the oven door when the 
oven is in use, to remind you of the baking. 



RULES FOR WORKING 25 

RULES FOR WASHING DISHES AND FOR CARE OF UTENSILS 

Preparations.— 1. Collect all dishes to be washed; 
scrape, clean, and pile like dishes together. 

2. Soak dishes that have contained dough, batter, eggs, 
or starch in cold water; those soiled by sugar, in hot water. 

3. Prepare two pans of good hot water. Use one for 
rinsing and one for washing dishes. 

4. Wipe out all greasy pans with paper and put paper 
in the garbage can or stove. 

5. Remove the hot-plate board from the table and 
place on the stove, providing a clean, dry place clear for 

clean dishes. 

6. Serviceable towels for drying dishes are made by 
hemming flour sacks. Glass toweling or linen crash 
absorbs moisture readily. A good dishcloth should not be 
too large and should be sweet and clean. Have one for 
china and one for kitchen dishes. 

Instructions for Washing.— 1. Put glasses into hot 
water sidewise to prevent uneven expansion of glass, which 

breaks them. 

2. Glass and silver ware are brighter if wiped directly 
from clean, hot suds. Do not rinse. 

3. Wash cut glass in warm water and dry carefully. A 
sudden change of temperature breaks cut glass. 

4. Rinse all dishes, except glasses, in clean, hot water, 
and wipe quickly with a clean, dry towel. 

5. Do not put bone or wooden knife or fork handles in 
water. Wipe with a wet cloth and then dry them. 

6. Scour kitchen knives and forks with bath brick or 
sapolio and then wash and rinse well. 

7. Scrape rolling pin and molding board and wipe off 
with a wet cloth. Do not use much water on either. 



26 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

8. Do not wet the cogs of egg beaters. 

9. Wash the teapot and the coffeepot clean with hot 
water, wipe dry, clean spout carefully, and leave with covers 
open. 

10. Get clean water several times during the washing 
process. 

11. Wash the dish pan thoroughly, rinse, and wipe dry. 

12. Rinse out the dishcloth and towels and hang in the 
air and sun to dry. 

APPLICATION 

1. Practice measuring, both liquids and dry materials. 

2. Learn to know sections on measuring cup. 

3. Wash dishes. 

4. Do general housekeeping work, — sweeping, caring 
for sink, stoves, pantry, etc. 



LESSON 2 

HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 

Carbon. — All vegetable and animal matter contains 
carbon. This can be easily shown by simple experiments : — 

1. Heat a little sugar in a test tube over a gas flame. 
What does the heat do? What is left? 

2. Heat a little starch in a test tube over a gas flame. 

3. Heat a tiny piece of meat in a test tube over a gas 

flame. 

4. Hold a cold plate for a moment over the red part 
of the gas flame, over a lighted lamp, or in the red flame of 
a coal or wood tire. 

In like manner, any organic substance may be heated 
to a black char, which is mostly carbon. How is charcoal 

made? 

Animals get the carbon of their bodies from plants, 
which in turn get it from the air. Animals breathe in the 
pure air and give off impure air containing carbon dioxide 
gas. The plants take up this gas through their leaves and 
stems, and by the aid of water and the energy from the 
sun the carbon is manufactured into sugar, starch, and cellu- 
lose in the plant fiber. When carbon burns, it again liber- 
ates the sun's energy. 

Heat is natural or artificial. Sunlight gives natural 
heat; fire, artificial heat. The sun is the source of all 
energy. 

Experiments Illustrating Burning. — 

1. Light a short candle, place it on the table, and 
watch it burn. 

(V7\ 



28 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

2. Turn a tumbler over it and see what happens. 

3. Turn a chimney over the lighted candle, raising the 
chimney a little from the table. Then cover the top of the 
chimney and see if there is any change. 

4. Light a small piece of paper, and uncovering the 
top of the chimney quickly drop in the lighted paper. 
What happens? 

What do these experiments indicate? What element 
in air is necessary to a burning candle? 

5. Clean two half-pint milk bottles. Insert a lighted 
paper into one of the bottles and then cover. Pour a little 
clear lime water into the bottle. Is there any change in 
the clearness of the lime water? 

6. Breathe into fresh lime water in the second bottle, 
through a straw. Is the result similar to that of Exp. 5? 

Clear lime water turns milky when carbon dioxide gas 
mixes with it. Is any of this gas present in Experiments 
5 and 6? If so, explain where it came from. 

Things Essential for a Fire. — Three things are essen- 
tial for fire (1) air (oxygen), (2) fuel, and (3) a means of 
raising- the temperature to the kindling point. 

Oxidation (Combustion). — Oxygen unites readily with 
many other elements, and the process is called oxidation. / ^ 
When this takes place so rapidly that heat and light are 
produced as in fire, we call it combustion. It may also 
go on very slowly, yet the results are the same. Food is 
oxidized slowly in every living cell of the body, giving 
heat and the energy to do work. 

The Kindling Point.— -By the kindling point of a sub- 
stance we mean the lowest temperature at which it burns, 
or unites with oxygen. Fuels differ as to this temperature, 
some having a much lower kindling point than others. 
For this reason, matches, paper, and wood burn more 



HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 2t 

readily than coal. The phosphorus of the match is ignited 
by the friction of striking, and burns. This in turn is 
used to ignite larger pieces of wood which have a higher 
kindling point. In the making of a coal fire, wood is used 
to raise the temperature high enough to ignite the coal. 

Products of Combustion.— The most common products 
of combustion are steam, carbon dioxide gas, smoke, soot, 
and ashes. In incomplete combustion a gas is formed, 
called carbon monoxide, which is very harmful to breathe. 
The carbon that is not burned passes off as smoke and 
soot. Soot contains some oily substances and sticks to 
cooking utensils and to the chimney and should be removed 
often. When allowed to accumulate in the chimney, soot 
is apt to cause fires. 

FUELS 

The most common fuels are wood, coal, kerosene, and 
gas. Being of vegetable origin, they all contain carbon. 

Wood is either hard or soft. Soft wood kindles quickly 
and produces a quick fire but which is of short duration. 
Pine and birch are soft wood. Hard wood burns more 
slowly, but a fire of hard wood keeps longer than one of 
soft wood. Oak and maple are examples of hard wood. 

Coal is of many kinds and is all formed from ancient 
vegetation which has been buried deep in the earth for a 
long time and subjected to a high degree of heat and pres- 
sure. Coal has a higher kindling point than wood, 
burns with a strong, steady heat for a long time, and holds 
fire much longer than the hardest wood. 

Kerosene, or coal oil, is prepared from petroleum and 
is used in stoves made especially for it. It is a cheap fuel 
and is safe if a good grade is used and care taken to keep 
the stove clean and in good condition. 



JO DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Gas is either natural or manufactured. Both are ex- 
cellent for fuel. Natural gas is cheap and can best be 
used only in localities where it is found. Manufactured 
gas is made from coal, petroleum, oil, wood, or peat, and 
is a clean fuel. In most cities where such gas is used 
it is cheaper than wood or coal. 

Gasoline is very inflammable and not safe to use in 
homes and schools. 

THE COAL RANGE 

Fire is used by all people as a means of preparing food. 
Many forms of cooking arrangements have been adopted, 
from the primitive camp fire, the grate fire and stove, to 
the coal range and the gas and electric appliances of modern 
times. 

Stoves differ widely in construction, yet all have the 
same essential parts, and in all the same principles apply. 
Study the stoves at school and at home and compare them. 

Parts of coal range to be studied are : — 

Fire box, which contains the fuel. 

Grate, or floor of the fire box. It is made in two parts, 
and may be opened. 

Dampers, which are (1) creative and (2) check, to con- 
trol the draft, (3) chimney and (4) oven, to direct the hot 
air currents. 

Ovens, used for baking food. 

Top, with covers of various sizes for surface cooking. 

Ash pan, for ashes and clinkers. 

Stovepipe, to carry off smoke and other products of 
combustion, and to afford a draft. 

To lay a fire: 1. Have fire box free of ashes. 

2. Remove lids from over the fire box. 

3. Place pieces of twisted paper or shavings crosswise 
in fire box. 



HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 



31 



4. Place a few pieces of soft wood and a couple of 
pieces of hard wood on top. 

5. Put on a shovelful of coal. 

6. Close top of stove before applying match. 

To start a fire: 1. Open lower and chimney dampers. 

2. Apply lighted match underneath to twisted papers. 

3. When the fire has a good start, add more fuel. 

4. Never fill the box more than two-thirds full. 




Fig. 5. A range, showing how the oven is heated. The purpose of dampers 
is to control the air currents, — to direct them and to make them hotter or not 
so hot. (Courtesy Kalamazoo Stove Company.) 

To regulate a fire: For a hot fire, open the creative and 
chimney dampers. Close oven damper. As soon as coal 
burns red on top, add more coal. When coal is red under- 
neath and black on top, close dampers. 

To heat the oven, open oven and chimney dampers and 
close others. This forces the hot air current around the 
oven and out the back of the range to the chimney. 



32 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

If the oven bakes too hard on bottom, open the slide 
in front of and below the grate. 

If the oven bakes too hard on top, lift a cover slightly 
from the top of the fire box. 

To hold a fire, fill fire box with coal, close all dampers, 
open check half way. The check is in front of and above 
the fire box, and causes a current of air to pass over the fire 
instead of through it, thereby checking oxidation. 

General Care of the Coal Range. — 1. Clean oven flue 
once a month when in constant use. The accumulation 
of fine ashes prevents free circulation of hot air, besides 
absorbing heat. 

2. Clinkers, egg shells, etc., should be avoided in the 
fire box. Put sheik in only when the fire is burning freely. 

3. Do not allow coal to reach the top of box. It 
reddens the covers and causes them to warp. 

4. Empty the ash pan regularly and do not let it over- 
flow. An overflowing ash pan hinders the draft of air as 
well as makes extra work. 

5. Keep the stove clean. Brush off at once anything 
that is spilled over it or in the oven. 

6. A cloth with a few drops of kerosene on it rubbed 
over the stove when cold will keep it from rusting and is 
sufficient to keep the stove in good condition. 

7. If a polish is preferred, select one of good quality, 
moisten a small quantity with water, and apply sparingly 
with a brush, just as the stove is warming up. 

A study of fuels, — wood and coal, with varieties of each, 
cost, and suitability, — may be taken up in this connection. 

THE GAS RANGE 

Gas ranges differ in construction as widely as coal 
ranges, but all are built on practically the same general plan. 
Study gas ranges at home and at school and compare. 



HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 3S 

The parts of a gas range that should receive attention are: 
The main pipe, which leads the gas into the range. It 
has a shut off. Locate it. 

The oven, for baking. This is regulated by gas stop- 
cocks. It is sometimes controlled by a pilot light, some- 
times by direct action. Explain. 

The broiling oven and toaster. The gas flow for these is 
controlled by gas cocks. 

Top burners, for surface cooking. Each has a separate 
cock. Locate the cock for each burner. 

The simmering burner, a small burner on top. 
The stove pipe, a connection of range to chimney to 
carry off smoke and gas. 

To light the gas burners: See that the main stopcock 
is open. This may be left open from day to day, but should 
be closed when gas is not used, as in vacations or when mak- 
ing repairs. 

Light the match, open the cock of the burner you wish 
to light, and apply match to burner. If it "fires back," 
close gas cock, and open again to permit the flow of gas 
through the cock for a moment to drive out the air. Close 
again and then relight as before. 

Each burner has an air regulator, which should be 
adjusted to the air pressure in the city where it is used. 
The flame should burn blue; if the flame is yellow, adjust 
air flow at once. 

Caution: In discontinuing use, always see that all stop- 
cocks are shut off tight. 

To light the gas oven: Open the oven doors. If a 
pilot-light, turn on the pilot and apply lighted match 
through hole for that purpose in the side of the oven. When 
lighted, turn on first one gas cock in the oven and then the 
other. 



34 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

See that the entire coil burns with a blue flame. 

If a direct action, apply lighted match directly to the 
coil as cock is turned on, always with oven doors open. 
Bad explosions often occur if one fails to observe these 
directions. 

To regulate the fire and save gas : As soon as a kettle 
boils, turn down the gas enough to just keep contents 
boiling. If the gas is turned too high, the yellow flame 
will blacken the kettle. A blue flame is clean. Use sim- 
merer instead of a large burner, when long, slow cooking is 
needed or to hold warmth. 

In heating the oven, light gas a few minutes before the 
dish is ready to go in, to insure heat; then reduce the flame 
to hold the heat. Turn off the gas entirely a few minutes 
before removing baking from oven, since the oven retains 
enough heat to finish the cooking, and the extra gas would 
be a waste. 

Care of the Gas Range. — 1. Keep air holes clean. 

2. Wipe off sheet iron under top burners clean when 
through cooking each day. 

3. If anything is spilled on the stove, wipe off imme- 
diately. 

4. Rub daily with cloth containing a few drops of kero- 
sene, to keep black and clean and free from rust. 

THE ELECTRIC STOVE 

Electric stoves are not very commonly used, but are 
cleaner and more convenient than the gas stove. They are 
more expensive to operate, however, on account of the high 
rate of the electricity consumed. Electric stoves vary in 
size and construction. 



HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 35 

The parts of an electric stove are : — 

Electric coils, placed under the covers and around the 
oven. These become red hot when the current is turned on. 

The oven, for baking. 

Electric attachment, where the stove is connected with 
current. A switch button is used as with electric lights. 

Electric Appliances. — There are various appliances for 
cooking food by means of electricity; as, toasters, chafing 
dishes, percolators, and combination cookers. These may 
be attached to any light connection in a minute's time, are 
very convenient, moderate in first cost, but comparatively 
expensive of use. 

OIL STOVES 

Kerosene is used to a large extent in country homes and 
summer residences where gas is not available. Good, 
vaporized blue-flame kerosene stoves give satisfaction and 
are quite safe when placed where there is no draft. 

The parts of oil stove to be studied are : — 

The tank, for oil. 

Several lamps, each consisting of a chamber for oil and 
wicks, which need daily care, and cylinders, which carry the 
heat to the burner above. 

Care of oil stoves: — 1. Clean wicks and cylinders every 
day. See that the tank for oil is refilled and never allowed 
to run dry. 

2. Wipe off surface of stove and keep perfectly clean. 

FIRELESS COOKERS 

Fireless cookers are made from a variety of materials, 
but all have the same underlying principle of operation. 

Construction. — Fireless cookers consist of a covered box 
lined with tin or zinc; packing, usually felt or excelsior, or 
any materiaLthat is a non-conductor of heat ; food chambers, 



36 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

for cooking; and radiators, consisting of iron or stone discs, 
which are heated and placed under and over the dish con- 
taining the food to be cooked. The efficiency of the cooker 
depends largely upon how nearly the packing is a non-con- 
ductor of heat. 

Care of fireless cookers: 1. Keep all parts clean and dry. 

2. Keep cooker tightly fastened when in use. 

3. Air out frequently to keep sweet and clean. 

APPLICATION 

1. Practice laying a fire in the range. 

2. Practice lighting gas burners, gas ovens, and the 

water heater. 

3. Baked Potatoes 

Method. — Select smooth, medium-sized potatoes. Wash 
well with a small vegetable brush kept for the purpose. 
Bake in a hot oven about 45 minutes or until done. This 
may be determined by testing with a fork. Break the 
skins to let the steam escape, and serve at once. If baked 
potatoes stand they become soggy. 

4. Stuffed Potatoes 

6 medium-sized potatoes, baked 4 tbsp. hot milk 

2 tbsp. butter 2 egg whites 

Yl tsp. salt Pepper 

Method. — Cut the end from each baked potato, or cut 
in half lengthwise, scrape out the inside with a fork, and 
mash the center with a fork. Season it with the salt, 
pepper, butter and milk. Add the beaten white, reserving 
part of it for the top. Fill the skins with the mixture, 
brush over the top with the egg and return to the oven 
until browned. 

Grated cheese may be sprinkled on the top for a change. 

Minced meat may be added to the potato. Ham or chicken 

would be good. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 1 potato.) 



LESSON 3 

COOKING. CARBOHYDRATES— POTATOES 

Cooking is the application of heat to food to prepare it 
for eating. 

Reasons for Cooking. — Food is cooked for any or all 
of the following reasons: — 

1. To make it more easily chewed and digested. 

2. To improve its flavor and appearance. 

3. To kill any germs and parasites it may contain. 

Methods of Cooking. — The method to be used in cook- 
ing a food depends, among other things, upon (a) the 
nature of the food and (b) whether it is desired to extract, 
partially extract, or retain the juices. The heat is applied 
in a variety of ways: by (1) radiation, (2) hot water or 
steam, (3) hot fat, (4) hot metal, and by combinations of 
these. 

1. Boiling is cooking in boiling water. In this case 
the cooking water is usually drained off and not used. 

2. Stewing is long, slow cooking in water below the 
boiling point. The pot is tightly covered, and the enclosed 
steam assists in the cooking. The liquids are usually 
served with the dish as gravy or are made into soup. 

3. Steaming is cooking by either moist steam, as in a 
steamer over boiling water, or by dry steam, as in a double 
boiler. 

4. Roasting\ In the olden days meats, especially, 

5. Broiling J were commonly cooked in the direct heat 
of a glowing fire or over a bed of coals. Small pieces were 
broiled and larger ones roasted, a tin reflector being used 
for the latter. 

(37) 



38 DOMESTIC SCIEXCE 

6. Pan broiling is cooking in a hot frying pan. It is 
used when it is not convenient to broil directly over the fire. 

7. Baking is cooking in an oven. It is quite the same 
as roasting and broiling, which it has superseded. Batters, 
doughs, and vegetables are usually spoken of as baked in 
an oven, and meats as roasted. 

8. Pan baking is cooking on a hot griddle, as pancakes 
are cooked. 

9. Frying is cooking by dipping or immersing in hot fat. 
Fat, unlike water, will heat to a temperature of 500° or 
greater. Doughnuts, fish, and potatoes are foods com- 
monly fried. 

10. Santeing is cooking in a small amount of hot fat. 
Omelets and hashed browned potatoes are sauted. 

11. Braising is cooking in a small amount of water 
or stock in a covered dish in an oven. It is a combination 
of stewing and baking. 

12. Fricasseeing combines sauteing and stewing. 

STARCH 

Starch, in prepared form, is a fine white powder, con- 
sisting of tiny starch grains. It is a carbohydrate. 

Source. — It is found in the vegetable world and is 
most abundant in the cereals, tapioca, potatoes, and other 
vegetable products. Starch is not formed in the animal 
body. 

Food Value. — Starch gives heat and energy to the body 
but does not build or repair tissues, and when used alone 
it cannot sustain life; it must be used with tissue-forming 
foods. Starch must be changed to sugar by digestion 
before it can be used in the body. 

Test for Starch. — Iodine turns starch a deep blue. 
(Demonstrate.) 



CARBOHYDRATES— POTATOES 



39 



Use. — Starch in the prepared form is used to thicken 
liquids and sauces. 

Starch Experiments. — 

1. Put a tsp. of starch in a glass containing }/± c. of 
water. Watch it. What happens? 

2. Mix 1 tsp. of starch with l ± c. cold water to form 
a paste. Add }/& c. boiling water. See what happens. 

3. Pour ¥2 c. boiling water over 1 tsp. of starch, with- 
out first mixing cold water. What happens? Break one 
of the lumps. 

4. Mix starch grains with melted butter; add boiling 
water. 

5. Mix starch with granulated sugar; add boiling water. 

Compare results of experiments and draw conclusions. 




Fig. 6. Effect of cooking on starch: a, cells of a raw potato, showing starch 
grains and fram«work; b, cells of a partially cooked potato; c, cells of a thor- 
oughly boiled potato. (Hutchison.) 



The Cooking of Starch. — Heat and moisture are needed 
to soften starch. 

Starch grains must be separated in some way before 
boiling water is added. 

Starch needs long, thorough cooking and a high tem- 
perature to make it easier to digest. 



40 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

POTATOES (Irish, or White) 

A potato is an enlargement of an underground stem. 
It is a storehouse of starch, which furnishes food for the 
young plants. 

Composition. — Potatoes contain — 

Water, about z /i their weight. For this reason they 
may be baked, since they contain enough water to soften 
the starch. 

Starch, about 1/5 their weight. 

Protein, aoout 2.5 per cent. 

Cellulose, which forms the walls of the cells. 

Mineral matter, which is mainly potash salts. 

What food principle is wholly lacking? Which is defi- 
cient in amount? 

Structure. — The potato is made up of cells with thin 
walls of fiber, and these cells contain starch grains and water. 
Surrounding the mass of starch cells and just beneath the 
skin is a layer of nutritious mineral matter and protein 
material. This is wasted if the potato is peeled too thickly. 

Manner of Growth. — Potatoes are grown from cuttings, 
each cutting planted producing several tubers beneath the 
soil. They are best when fully matured; those immature 
are soggy when cooked. Large potatoes are likely to be 
hollow at the center. 

Care in Storage. — Potatoes should be kept in a cool, 
dark, dry place. Do not let potatoes sprout. The sprouts 
use moisture and starch from the potato, and thus decrease 
its value for the table. 

Food Value. — Owing to their large content of starch, 
potatoes are excellent as heat and energy producers. Pota- 
toes are healthful and are easily and thoroughly digested. 
They furnish 12.5 per cent of the average American diet. 



CARBOHYDRATES— POTATOES 41 

Rules for Paring Potatoes. — 1. Always pare potatoes 
thinly. 

2. Remove sprouts and eyes with the point of a knife. 

3. Drop potatoes in cold water as soon as they are 
peeled, but allow them to soak as little as possible. Explain 
why. 

4. Soak old potatoes in cold water an hour before 
cooking, to restore part of their freshness. 

Points on Cooking Potatoes. — 1. Drop potatoes into 
boiling water to cook, not into cold water. Why? 

2. Too vigorous boiling tears the outside of the pota- 
toes before the inside is cooked. 

3. Pour off all the water when the potatoes are tender 
and let them stand uncovered. Why? 

4. Baking potatoes and boiling them with the skins on 
are the most economical methods of cooking them. There 
is less loss of nutrients and flavor than with any other 
method. 

The Sweet Potato. — The sweet potato, which is an 
enlarged root, is a warm-climate plant and is grown in the 
United States as far north as New Jersey. It is about as 
common an article of food in the South as the white potato 
is in the North. 

While the sweet potato is somewhat higher in food value 
than the white, it may be regarded and treated similarly. 
It contains about 26 per cent of starch and sugar, of which 
10 per cent is sugar. It also has about 69 per cent water 
and 1.3 per cent cellulose, requiring a longer time for cook- 
ing. 

Yams are the tropical substitute for the potato. These 
roots are larger, similar in structure, but coarser and less 
palatable, than either the white or the sweet potato. 



42 DOMESTIC SCIEXCE 

APPLICATION 

1. Test the potato for starch with iodine. 

2. Test for simmering point and boiling point of water. 
Is the temperature increased by more rapid boiling? 

3. Boiled Potatoes 

Method. — Select potatoes that are smooth and of uni- 
form size. Wash and pare them. Cook them in boiling 
salted water until soft. Test with a fork; if it withdraws 
easily, the potatoes are done. Allow one tablespoonful of 
salt to every seven potatoes and enough water to cover. 
Drain off the water and let stand uncovered in a warm place 
until served. Serve hot. Potatoes may also be scrubbed 
well and boiled with the skins on. 
(Basis /w - gtris, 1 potc 

4. Riced Potatoes 

Method. — Put boiled potatoes through a hot potato 
ricer and serve at once. Do not pack or mash in putting 
into the serving dish. 

5. Mashed Potatoes 

2 tbsp. butter 4 tbsp. hot milk 

boiled potatoes } 2 tsp. salt 

Pepper 

Method. — Mash the boiled potatoes with a potato 

masher or a fork until soft, add the butter, salt, pepper, and 

the milk, and beat all until light and foamy. Serve piled 

lightly in a hot serving-dish. 

6. Sweet Potatoes 

Method. — Cook sweet potatoes with the skins on. They 

may also be mashed, riced, or baked. 

7. Potato Cakes 

Method. — Press cold mashed potatoes into small round 
cakes about J _> inch thick. Brush over with milk, and 
saute them in butter until a rich brown on both sides. 



CARBOEYDRATEE-FOTATOEM 43 

8. Creamed Potatoes 

1 c. cooked potatoes 3^ c. medium white sauce 

1 tbsp. finely chopped parsley 

Method.— Cut the boiled potatoes in half-inch cur - 
Make a medium white sauce according to first method in 
Lesson 4, and combine with the potatoes while hot. Add 
the finely cut parsley and serve. 

9. Au Gratin Potatoes 

1 c. boiled prtat M c buttered crumbs 

y 2 c medium white sauce 

Method.— Cut the boiled potatoes in half-inch cubes; 
put a layer of potatoes in a buttered baking dish, and cover 
with half of the white sauce; then add the rest of the pota- 
toes, the rest of the white sauce, and lastly the buttered 
crumbs. Allow 1 tbsp. of butter to each H C of crumbs. 
Bake in the oven until the top is nicely browned. 

10. Delmonico Potatoes 

Add a layer of grated cheese to the top of Au Gratin 
Potatoes before adding the crumbs, and bake the same as 

Au Gratin. 

11. Glazed Sweet Potatoes 

Mdhod— Wash and pare 6 medium-sized sweet potatoes. 
Cook in boiling salted water 10 minutes. Drain, cut in 
halves, lengthwise, and put into a buttered baking dish. 
Make a sirup by boiling Vi c. sugar with 4 tbsp. of water 3 
min., then add 1 tbsp. of butter. Brush the potatoes with 
the sirup, and bake 10 to 15 minutes until tender. Baste 
the potatoes with the sirup once or twice while baking. 

12. Baked Sweet Potatoes 
Prepare and bake the same as white potatoes. 



LESSON 4 

CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 

Vegetables include most of the plants used for food 
with the exception of grains and fruits. 

Classes of Vegetables. — Different parts of vegetable 
plants are used for food, and these may be arranged in 
classes as follows: — 

Tubers, or the enlargements of underground stems; ex- 
amples, white potato, artichoke. 

Roots; examples, sweet potato, beet, carrot, radish, 
parsnip, turnip, oyster plant. 

Bulbs; examples, onion, garlic. 

Stems; examples, asparagus, celery, chives. 

Leaves; examples, lettuce, spinach, water cress, cab- 
bage, and greens. 

Flowers; example, cauliflower. 

Fruits; examples, corn,* pea, bean, tomato, squash, 
cucumber, and eggplant. 

Composition. — The edible portion of most vegetables 
is a storehouse of nutriment that the plant has laid up 
either for its own later use or for the benefit of the seedling, 
or young plant. Thus the radish uses the food in the 
enlarged root to produce a seed stalk, and the young bean 
and grain plants use the nutriment in the seed to get a 
growing start in the soil. 

Legumes are a class of plants that have the power to 
take nitrogen from the air and make it into a form that is 
available to man. They include peas, beans, lentils, and 



*The term "fruit" here includes seeds. 

(44) 



CARBOHYDRA TE8— VEGETABLES 



45 



peanuts. Legumes contain from 18 to 25 per cent protein, 
mostly in the form of legumin. In European countries, 
they are used to a great extent in place of meat, which is 
there very expensive. 

The Composition of Vegetables 



Food material (as pur- 
chased) 



Vegetables: 

Beans, dried 

Beans, Lima, shelled . . 

Beans, string 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Celery 

Corn, green (sweet), edi- 
ble portion 

Cucumbers 

Lettuce 

Mushrooms 

Onions 

Parsnips 

Peas, dried 

Peas, shelled 

Cowpeas, dried 

Potatoes 

Rhubarb 

Sweet potatoes 

Spinach 

Squash 

Tomatoes , 

Turnips 

Vegetables, canned 

Baked beans 

Peas, green 

Corn, green 

Succotash 

Tomatoes 



Refuse 



% 



7.0 
20.0 
15.0 
20.0 



15.0 
15.0 



10.0 
20.0 



20.0 
40.0 
20.0 



50.0 
30.0 



Water 



% 

12.6 
68.5 
83.0 
70.0 
77.7 
75.6 

75.4 
81.1 
80.5 
88.1 
78.9 
66.4 
9.5 
74.6 
13.0 
62.6 
56.6 
55.2 
92.3 
44.2 
94.3 
62.7 

68.9 
85.3 
76.1 
75.9 
94.0 



Pro- 
tein 



% 

22.5 
7.1 
2.1 
1.3 
1.4 
.9 

3.1 

.7 

1.0 

3.5 

1.4 

1.3 

24.6 

7.0 

21.4 

1.8 

.4 

1.4 

2.1 

.7 

.9 

.9 

6.9 
3.6 
2.8 
3.6 
1.2 



Fats 



% 

1.8 

.7 
.3 
.1 
.2 
.1 

1.1 
.2 
.2 
.4 
.3 
.4 
1.0 
0.5 
1.4 
.1 
.4 
.6 
.3 
.2 
.4 
.1 

2.5 

.2 

1.2 

l'.O 

.2 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



% 

59.6 

22.0 

6.9 

7.7 
4.8 
2.6 

19.7 

2.6 

2.5 

6.8 

8.9 

10.8 

62.0 

16.9 

60.8 

14.7 

2.2 

21.9 

3.2 

4.5 

3.9 

5.7 

19.6 

9.8 

19.0 

18.6 

4.0 



Ash. 



% 

3.5 

1.7 

.7 

.9 

.9 



.7 

.4 

.8 

1.2 

.5 

1.1 

2.9 

1.0 

3.4 

.8 

.4 

.9 

2.1 

.4 

.5 

.6 

2.1 

1.1 

.9 

.9 

.6 



Fuel 
value 
per lb. 



calories 
1,520 
540 
170 
160 
115 
65 

440 

65 

65 

185 

190 

230 

1,565 

440 

1,505 

295 

60 

440 

95 

100 

100 

120 

555 
235 
430 
425 
95 



The leaves of plants are the means by which the plant 
breathes in carbon dioxide and gives out oxygen, and they 
contain very little nourishment. It is here that sugar and 



46 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

starch are largely manufactured, to be then carried to other 
parts of the plant for growth or for storage. Greens, which 
are chiefly the leaves and stems of plants, consist largely of 
water, with much cellulose, considerable mineral salts, and 
comparatively small amounts of protein, starch and sugar. 

Food Value. — All vegetables are of value in the diet for 
their mineral salts, some furnish considerable carbohydrates, 
and a few furnish, in addition, protein. All contain a 
large amount of water and indigestible material. For this 
reason they are suitable to eat with concentrated foods, 
such as meat and eggs. The cellulose, a fibrous, woody, 
indigestible substance, is important because it gives bulk 
to our food. This bulk is necessary to stimulate the flow of 
digestive juices and to promote the movement of food along 
the digestive tract. 

Many greens should be eaten raw, since mineral salts 
are lost in the water in cooking, and the cellulose is best 
eaten crisp. 

The legumes have a high food value and are classed 
with meat and cheese as a tissue-building food, since they 
contain such a large percentage of protein. The digesti- 
bility of food is an important factor in determining food 
value, for unless a food is available to the body it cannot 
serve the full purpose of food. Vegetables with hard 
cellulose fiber require long, slow cooking to soften the cellu- 
lose walls and to cook sufficiently the starch and protein. 
Some, like cabbage, are more digestible eaten raw. 

Vegetable protein, being surrounded by cellulose walls, 
is not so completely digested as animal protein, and can not 
be counted on to build as much tissue as the same amount 
of animal protein. Dried beans and peas are usually sold 
at a comparatively low price, and are among the most eco- 
nomical sources of both protein and energy. 



CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 47 

Selection of Vegetables. — Select vegetables in season — 
they are less expensive then, and of better quality. 

Select medium-sized vegetables, for large ones are likely 
to be old and tough, requiring longer cooking. 

See that they are fresh ; green vegetables are crisp. 

Care of Vegetables. — Keep winter vegetables in a cool, 
dark, dry place, and exclude air if possible. Why is this 
necessary? 

Keep green vegetables on ice until ready to use. 

Cook summer vegetables as soon after they are gath- 
ered as possible, in order to preserve the flavor. 

Rules for Preparing Vegetables. — 1. Wash all vege- 
tables in cold water. It is a good plan to keep a small 
brush for this purpose. 

2. Let wilted vegetables soak in cold water to freshen 
them. 

3. Soak dried vegetables in cold water. 

4. Empty all canned vegetables from the can as soon 
as opened. Drain off the liquor and rinse peas and beans. 

Rules for Cooking Vegetables. — 1. Cook vegetables 
whole when practical, using enough water to cover. 

2. Use vegetable water for flavoring purposes, since it 
contains some nutritive substances. 

3. Keep the water boiling. 

4. Cook green vegetables uncovered , to retain their color. 

5. Cook vegetables with strong odors, such as cabbage, 
onions, and turnips, uncovered. 

6. Change the water several times during the cooking. 

7. Allow 2 tbsp. of salt to 1 qt. of water. 

8. The time for cooking vegetables depends on the 
kind, size, and age of the vegetables, and one must use judg-, 
ment rather than depend on a time-table to tell when the I 
vegetables are done. 



48 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

9. Vegetables are served with butter, salt and pepper, 
or with a medium white sauce. 

Time Table Guide for Cooking 

Asparagus 30 to 45 min. 

Beans, (string) 1 to 2 hr. 

Beans, (lima) 1 to 13^ hr. 

Beets • 1 hr. 

Cabbage l A hr. 

Cauliflower 3^ hr. 

Carrots 30 to 40 min. 

Corn (green) 15 to 20 min. 

Onions 40 to 60 min. 

Parsnips 1 to 2 hr. 

Potatoes 20 to 40 min. 

Peas 30 to 40 min. 

Spinach 20 to 30 min. 

Squash (summer) 30 to 45 min. 

Turnips 40 to 60 min. 

WHITE SAUCES 

1. Thin White Sauce 
2 tbsp. butter 1 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk 

J4 tsp. salt Dash pepper 

This is used for cream soups and scalloped dishes. 

2. Medium White Sauce 
2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk. 

34 tsp. salt, dash of pepper 

This is used for creamed vegetables, fish, meat, and 

cream toast. 

3. Thick White Sauce 
2 tbsp. butter 4 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk 

Y± tsp. salt; dash of pepper 

This is used for binding materials in croquettes. 

Three Methods of Making White Sauce. — 1. Melt 
the butter but do not brown, add the flour and seasoning, 
and stir until smooth. Add the milk slowly, stirring con- 
stantly until all is added and is perfectly smooth. Let it 
boil up once to thoroughly cook the starch in the flour. 

2. Mix the flour with an equal quantity of cold water 
or milk until smooth, and then add enough more milk to 



CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 49 

make it pour easily. Heat the remainder of the milk in a 
double boiler, and when hot add the flour mixture gradually, 
stirring all the time until the mixture thickens. Add the 
butter and seasoning. This method takes longer (15 min.). 
3. Cream the butter, add the flour and seasonings and 
stir until all is well mixed. Scald the milk and pour slowly 
over the butter and flour, stirring all the time. 

APPLICATION 
1. Boiled Carrots 

Method. — Wash, scrape, and cut carrots in half-inch 
cubes or slices. Cook in boiling water until soft. Drain 
and season with salt and pepper. Serve with a medium 
white sauce, Method No. 1. 

(Basis for two, \^ c. white sauce.) 

2. Boiled and creamed turnips, onions, or potatoes are 
prepared in the same manner as boiled carrots. 

3. Boiled Beets 

Method. — Select small young beets. Wash, and cook 
them in boiling salted water without peeling, until tender, — 
about one hour. When done, put in cold water and rub 
off the skins. Slice them and serve with salt, pepper, but- 
ter, and vinegar. 

4. Corn on the Cob 

Method. — Remove the husks and silk from the ears. 
Cook the corn in salted boiling water for 10 minutes. Drain 
well. Serve hot. 

6. Cauliflower and Tomatoes 

Method. — Soak the cauliflower in cold water, head down, 
for Yi hour. Cook in boiling salted water for 3^ hour. 
Drain, and place the head on a hot serving dish. Serve 
with Tomato Sauce. 



50 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Tomato Sauce 

2 tbsp. butter }/£ tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. flour 1 c. strained tomato 

Pepper 

Method. — Make according to white sauce using the 
strained tomato in place of milk. Or use half tomato and 
half milk, and add a speck of soda to keep it from curdling. 

6. Creole Green Corn 

6 ears corn 2 ripe tomatoes 

1 tbsp. olive oil 1 /l tsp. salt 

1 small onion Dash red pepper 

2 sweet peppers 1 tsp. of sugar 

Method. — Cut corn from the cob, and put into a frying 
pan with olive oil. Cook for 10 or 12 minutes, add the 
chopped sweet pepper and the onion, then the chopped ripe 
tomatoes, salt, sugar, and dash of red pepper. Cook a few 
minutes and then serve. 

7. Corn and Pimentos 

1 can corn 2 tsp. butter 

3 chopped pimentos Salt and pepper 

Method. — Put corn and chopped pimentos in frying 
pan with butter and cook a long time until very thick. 
Green peppers can also be used. 

8. Baked Beans 
1 qt. beans 1 tsp. soda 

1 hp. tsp. salt 1 tsp. mustard 

1 tsp. ginger 2 tbsp. N. O. molasses 

x /2 lb. sliced bacon 

Method. — Soak beans over night. In morning scald in 

hot soda water, drain, add fresh water, and cook 15 minutes. 

Pour off the water, add the other ingredients, cover with 

fresh water, and bake in covered jar 4 or 5 hours. Remove 

the cover the last half hour. 

9. Stuffed Tomatoes 
6 medium-sized tomatoes 2 tbsp. melted butter 

1 c. soft bread crumbs 1 tsp. salt 

1-16 tsp. pepper 



CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 51 

Method. — Wash tomatoes. Cut a thin 1 slice from the 
stem end of each. Take out seeds and pulp and drain off 
most of the liquid. Mix the crumbs, butter, and seasoning 
and add to the tomato pulp. Sprinkle the inside of the 
tomato with salt and pepper. Refill the tomatoes with the 
mixture ; replace the tops. Place in a buttered pan. Sprin- 
kle with buttered crumbs, bake 20 minutes in a hot oven. 

Chopped meat, oysters, green peppers, sweet corn, 
mushrooms, or celery may be added to the stuffing. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 

10. Fresh Peas 

Method. — Shell peas just before using, look them over 
carefully and put in a kettle containing enough boiling water 
to cover. Boil slowly until tender. Add butter, salt and 
pepper, and serve hot. 

11. Canned Peas 

Method. — Canned peas should be opened at least one 
hour before using. The air helps to restore to them their 
natural flavor. Turn out of the can as soon as opened, 
drain off the liquid, and add fresh water. Cook in a sauce- 
pan, with 1 tbsp. of butter and salt and pepper to taste, for 
5 minutes, when, if of good quality, they will be done. 
Peas and carrots make a nice combination. 

12. Eggplant 

Method. — Two hours before time for cooking, peel and 
slice the eggplant quite thin, sprinkle each slice with salt, 
lay slices together and place a plate on top. The salt draws 
out the disagreeable flavor. Before cooking wipe each 
piece dry, dip in beaten egg f then in finely sifted cracker or 
bread crumbs, and fry in plenty of hot fat. Drain on a 
piece of brown wrapping paper to absorb the fat, and keep 
in a warm place until ready to serve. Serve on a hot plat- 
ter, the slices overlapping one another. 



LESSON 5 

CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 

Cereals, or grains, are grasses the seeds of which are 
used for food. They are the most important of vegetable 
foods. 

Kinds. — There are many kinds, but the most com- 
monly used are wheat, rice, rye, oats, Indian corn, and 
barley. From these are prepared the various breakfast 
foods found on the market. Name some. 

Composition. — Cereals for the most part contain all 
the food principles, but not in the right proportions. All 
contain much starch, considerable protein, and some woody 
fiber, with very little water; so they require long cooking. 

Composition of Cereals 



Oatmeal 

Corn meal 

Wheat flour (spring) 
Wheat flour (winter) 
Entire wheat flour. . 

Graham flour 

Pearl barley 

Rye meal 

Rice 

Buckwheat flour 

Macaroni 











Protein 


Fat 


Starch 


matter 


15.6 


7.3 


68.0 


1.9 


8.9 


2.2 


75.1 


0.9 


11.8 


1.1 


75.0 


0.5 


10.4 


1.0 


75.6 


0.5 


14.2 


1.9 


70.6 


1.2 


13.7 


2.2 


70.3 


2.0 


9.3 


1.0 


77.6 


1.3 


7.1 


0.9 


78.5 


0.8 


7.8 


0.4 


79.4 


0.4 


6.1 


1.0 


77.2 


1.4 


11.7 


1.6 


72.9 


3.0 



Water 



7.2 
12.9 
11.6 
12.5 
12.1 
11.8 
10.8 
12.7 
12.4 
14.3 
10.8 



Structure. — Most grains are covered with an outer husk 
of hard, indigestible fiber. This is removed either in the 
threshing process or in milling. Underneath this coat are 

(52) 



CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 53 

the bran coats, which are rich in mineral matter and are 
sometimes removed with the husk. The rest of the kernel 
consists of the germ, which is the vital or living part of the 
grain, surrounded by a large food supply of starch and pro- 
tein. The germ is rich in fat and other nutrients. 

Food Value. — Cereals, containing much starch, are val- 
uable as heat and energy producers, and at the same time 
most cereals build and repair tissues, since they contain 
nitrogen. The great amount of carbohydrates in all cereals 
indicates that they should not be eaten alone, but along 
with other foods richer in fat and protein. On the whole, 
cereals are well absorbed in the body, ranking in that 
respect next to, and in some cases even above, the animal 
foods. This fact, combined with their compactness and 
richness in nutrients and their abundance and cheapness, 
places chem in the front rank of human food. 

Wheat breakfast foods are quite similar to graham and 
whole-wheat flours in composition, and are about equal to 
them in nutritive value. 

Oats are sold principally as oatmeal or rolled oats. Oat- 
meal is richer in food material than some other cereal foods, 
but, on account of its fiber, is not completely digested. It 
should be very thoroughly cooked. It is best adapted to 
strong, hard-working persons. 

Of all cereal foods cornmeal furnishes the largest amount 
of energy for a given cost. It is less digestible than wheat 
flour, owing to its coarse nature. Breakfast foods prepared 
from corn are, at reasonable prices, economical materials. 

Rice is almost pure starch and, being notably deficient 
in protein and fat, as compared with wheat and oats, needs 
to be eaten with cream or butter. 

Buckwheat and rye are similar to cornmeal as sources 
of protein and energy, but are more expensive. 



54 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 
Table for Cooking of Cereals 



Kind 



Oatmeal . . . 
Rice 

Rice 

Hominy. . . . 

Wheat mixtures 



1 
Amount 


1 C. 


1 C. 


1 c. 


1 c. 


1 c. 



Twice as much 
4 or 5 times as 

much 
4 or 5 times as 

much 
4 times as 

much 
4 times as 

much 



Salt 


Method 


1 tsp. 


Steam 


2 or 3 tsp. 


Steam 


2 or 3 tsp. 


Boil 


1 tsp. 


Steam 


1 tsp. 


Steam 



Time 



4 to 5 hrs. 
2 to 3 hrs. 
1 hr. 

4 to 5 hrs. 
1 to 3 hrs. 



The prepared breakfast foods give directions and time 
for cooking on the package, but in most cases longer cook- 
ing is necessary. 

How to Cook Cereals. — Cereals are either boiled or 
steamed. To boil cereals, allow about one tsp. of salt to 
each cup of cereal, and plenty of water to properly swell 
the starch grains. Put the water in a saucepan, and 
when it is boiling stir in the cereal gradually. Keep the 
water boiling and stir the cereal frequently to prevent the 
grains from sticking to the bottom. Cereals must be 
thoroughly cooked ; it takes a long time to soften cellulose. 

Steaming cereals in a double boiler is a better method 
than boiling, for it insures a more even cooking and re- 
quires long slow heat. 

A double boiler consists of two parts: (1) Lower part, 
which is for the water, and must be about half full, and the 
water kept boiling. Never let the boiler boil dry. (2) 
Upper part, in which the food is cooked. 

Put the cereal, with water and salt, into the upper part, 
and place in the lower part. Cover all and place over a 
fire. Steam until properly cooked, adding more water 
below, also more to the cereal when needed. 



CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 55 

RICE 

Rice is a cereal, a native of southeastern Asia, and now 
grown in large quantities in China, Japan, Central America, 
and our Southern states. 

Cultivation. — Marshy places are necessary for rice cul- 
tivation, and a system of irrigation or flooding is used. 
The water is drawn off when the planting is done. When 
the rice has a good start the water is allowed to flood the 
field to a depth sufficient to keep the top of the rice above 
the water. The water is drawn off to harvest the rice. 

Rice is prepared for market much the same as wheat. 
It is shocked, stacked, thrashed, and then sent to a hulling 
mill. Here the coat is separated from the white grain, 
which is polished. This polishing removes a coat rich in 
mineral matter; so the finished product is not as rich 
in minerals or protein. Rice is best when six months old. 
In China they prefer it three years old. 

Food Value. — Rice is the lowest in food value of all 
cereals, for it is almost pure starch. It must therefore be 
eaten with other forms of food rich in protein and fat in 
order to supply all the needs of the body. Starch grains 
are easily digested. 

Rice is the principal food of one-third of the people of the 
world. The people in the countries where it grows use it 
to supply their starchy food as we use the Irish potato. 
It is in season the year round. 

Ways of Cooking. — 

1. Boiling — like any cereal. 

2. Steaming — in milk or water. 

3. Boiled rice may be combined with tomatoes or 
cheese and baked. 

4. Rice is used in soups. 

5. Rice with eggs makes a good pudding. 



6$ DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Fruit with rice or other cereal adds sugar and flavoring 
to the dish, and is a pleasant change. Use dates or raisins. 

To Wash Rice — Put in a strainer and place in cold water. 
Rub thoroughly, changing the water several times until 
the rice is clean. 

APPLICATION 

1. Boiled Rice 
1 c. rice 2 tsp. salt 2 qt. water 

Method. — Pick over and wash the rice. When the 
water boils rapidly drop in the rice slowly, so as not to 
stop the boiling. Stir occasionally to keep the grains from 
settling to the bottom. Boil rapidly, uncovered, 20 to 30 
min., or until the grains crush easily between the fingers. 
Add the salt when nearly done. Pour into a strainer to 
drain, rinse with hot water to remove the loose starch. Set 
the strainer in the oven or put the rice in the serving dish 
and set in the hot oven a few minutes to dry the rice. Good 
boiled rice is white and soft and each grain is separate. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 2 tbsp. rice.) 

2. Steamed Rice 

Method. — Prepare rice as for boiling, and cook with 
water or milk and salt, in the double boiler. Cover and 
cook one hour, or until tender and all the liquid is absorbed. 
Milk is best to use for steamed rice. Raisins may be used 
and the rice served with milk or cream as a pudding or 

dessert. 

3. Cream of Wheat 
1 c. cream of wheat 4 c. boiling water 

Y2 tsp. salt 

Method. — Mix the cream of wheat and salt, add slowly 
to the boiling water in the upper part of the double boiler, 
stirring constantly. Cover and steam until done, about 
45 to 50 minutes. Serve with sugar and cream. 



CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 57 

4. Oatmeal Mush 

1 c. oatmeal 4*^ c. boiling water 

1 x /2 tsp. salt 

Method. — Put the boiling water in the upper part of the 
double boiler and gradually add the oatmeal and the salt. 
Cook over the fire without the lower part for 5 or 10 min- 
utes; then set in the lower part of the boiler and steam for 
5 or 6 hours. Stir it once in a while. Oatmeal is best 
cooked one day and served the next morning, to insure its 
being well cooked. 

Note. — Berries, sliced peaches, bananas, apple sauce, 
and dates or figs cut in pieces are good additions to cereals. 

5. Cornmeal Mush 
1 c. cornmeal 1 c. cold milk 

1 tbsp. flour 2 c. boiling water 

l}/2 tsp. salt 

Method. — Mix the meal, flour, and salt together thor- 
oughly. Put in the upper part of a double boiler, add the 
cold milk and stir until smooth. Add the boiling water 
slowly and cook all directly over the fire for 10 minutes, 
stirring constantly. Put in double boiler over boiling water ; 
cover and cook 5 hours. Serve hot with cream and sugar. 
6. Fried Cornmeal Mush 

Method. — Use cornmeal mush prepared as above, and 

pack in a wet mold or bread pan. Set away to cool for 

several hours. When cold cut in thin slices and saute in 

hot butter or drippings in a hot frying pan, until well 

browned on both sides. Serve plain or with butter or 

maple sirup. 

7. Left-overs of Cereals 

Method. — The cold cooked cereals may be cut in slices 
34 inch thick and sauted until a nice brown and served as 
Rule 6. Or, grated cheese may be added and the cereal 
made into croquettes and fried in deep fat. 



LESSON 6 

CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT 

Wheat has been called the king of cereals, since it is 
the best for bread making and is cultivated in a greater 
variety of soils and climates than any other cereal. 

Source. — Wheat is grown chiefly in Europe, the United 
States, (in Kansas, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Nebraska, 
Ohio) and Canada, India, The Argentine, and Australia. 
Russia and the United States produce about one-third of 
the wheat used. 

History. — Wheat was first used in the eastern countries, 
in the earliest times. Mummies of old Egypt have 
been found with wheat wrapped in them. It was carried 
across to the western continents by the earliest explorers. 

Kinds. — Wheat is known as (1) spring wheat and (2) 
winter wheat. 

Spring wheat is sown in the spring and matures the 
same season. This is a hard wheat rich in gluten and is 
the wheat from which most bread flour is made. 

Winter wheat is sown in the fall and harvested the 
following summer. It is softer and contains less gluten 
than spring wheat. Pastry flour is made from winter wheat. 

Structure. — 1. Bran coats, — there are three coats, or 
layers, of bran, which contain most of the mineral matter, 
and all are removed in white bread flour. Graham flour 
includes the entire kernel; whole-wheat flour, all but the 
coarser bran. 

2. The body of the grain, or endosperm, composed of 
cells filled with the starch and protein. This nearly sur- 
rounds the vital part of the grain, or the germ. 

(58) 



CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT 



59 




3. Germ, the tiny plant that holds the life of the seed. 
This is removed more or less, in the process of milling, 
because it makes the flour yellow and injures its keeping 
qualities. 

Composition of Wheat. — Wheat contains all the food 
principles, and is rich in protein and 
starch. See page 52 and compare with 
other cereals. 

Food Value. — Wheat is high in food 
value. It builds and repairs tissues and 
gives heat and energy. It is so nutri- 
tious, so widely and cheaply grown, and 
its cooking and baking qualities are so 
favorable, that it has become the basic 
food of the people of the civilized world. 
Wheat bread is in reality the "staff of life." 

Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and 
Italian pastes are made from a hard- 
wheat flour that contains a large amount 
of gluten. The Italians place macaroni in the same position 
in their diet as we Americans do our bread. 

Manufacture of Macaroni. — The flour is mixed with hot 
water to form a stiff paste. This is placed in a steam- 
heated iron cylinder, the bottom of which is filled with 
holes. The paste is forced through these holes by a press, 
and comes out in the form of rods or threads, according to 
the shape of the opening. These rods are then cut into 
lengths suitable to handle and are hung up to dry for 
four or five days. In Italy, macaroni is hung in the open 
air on racks and is not as clean as that manufactured in our 
own country, where it is dried on racks in large, clean drying 
rooms for the purpose. 

Spaghetti is in the form of rods and is solid and smaller. 



Fig. 7. Diagram- 
matic section of a 
wheat kernel: a, bran 
coats; b, aleurone 
layer; c, germ; d, body. 
(U. S. D. A. Bui.) 






SO DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Vermicelli is solid, thread-like, and smaller still than 
spaghetti. 

Appearance. — Good macaroni is rough, yellowish in 
color, and breaks clean without splitting. When cooked it 
swells and is elastic and firm. 

Food Value. — Macaroni is rich in gluten and starch, 
and is both a tissue-building and an energy-giving food. 
Combined with protein foods, like milk, eggs, or cheese, it 
makes an inexpensive dish that is a good substitute for 
meat. 

Cooking Macaroni. — Owing to the starch, macaroni 
absorbs about three times its weight of water and must 
therefore be cooked in plenty of water. 

Wash macaroni thoroughly when tender to remove out- 
side starch, preventing it from sticking together. 

To Butter Crumbs. — Sift crumbs in a strainer first to 
make them fine. Add y 8 c. melted butter to 1 c. of dry 
breadcrumbs, mix thoroughly before using. 

To Grate Cheese. — Use a dry cheese that will grate, but 
do not pack in measuring it. Grate on a common grater. 

APPLICATION 
1. Boiled Macaroni 

Method. — Break the macaroni into inch pieces. Drop 

into boiling salted water, allowing 1 tbsp. of salt to 1 qt. of 

water. Cook until tender, 20 to 25 minutes, or until it can 

be easily pierced with a fork. Keep plenty of water on to 

cover while cooking. When tender, pour into a colander 

and wash thoroughly in cold water to remove the starch 

that causes the pieces to stick together. Season, and serve 

with thin white sauce or with Tomato Sauce. 

2. Baked Macaroni with Cheese 
1 Yz c. macaroni 1 c. thin white sauce 

Yi c. grated cheese 1>£ c. buttered crumbs 



CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT 61 

Method. — Prepare the macaroni as for boiled macaroni. 
Butter a baking dish, put in a layer of boiled macaroni; then 
cover with one-half of the white sauce, half of the grated 
cheese and one-half the buttered crumbs. Then add the 
remainder of the macaroni, sauce, cheese, and crumbs. 
Bake in a moderate oven until the crumbs are nicely- 
browned and the sauce boils up around the sides. 

(Each two use 4 sticks macaroni, 2 tsp. cheese, and Y 2 c. white sauce.) 

3. Baked Macaroni and Tomato 
Method. — Use 1 J^ c. of stewed tomatoes in place of the 
white sauce, and arrange the macaroni in layers with the 
tomato and crumbs in place of the white sauce and the 

cheese. 

4. Tomato Sauce 

2 tbsp. butter 1 c. strained tomato 

2 tbsp. flour Y A tsp. salt 

Pepper 

Method. — Make according to White Sauce, using the 
strained tomato in place of milk. Or use half tomato and 
half milk, and add a speck of soda to keep it from curdling. 

6. Macaroni and Dried Beef 

2 c. cooked macaroni l A lb. dried beef 

2 c. medium white sauce, without salt 

Method. — Alternate layers of macaroni and finely cut 
dried beef in a buttered baking dish. Cover each layer 
with white sauce and buttered crumbs. Bake in the oven 
until brown on the top. 



DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY 

Purpose of Digestion. — The food that we eat, as we 
have learned, nourishes the body. Every living cell that 
composes the tissues must have food particles brought to 
it by the blood in order to grow or produce energy. This 
means that the food as eaten must be reduced to a very 
fine state to enable it to pass into the blood and be used in 
the body. This process of dissolving the usable portions 
of food is called digestion. The parts of the body that have 
this work to do are called the digestive organs, and the 
organs that form the path through which the food passes 
form the alimentary canal. 

How Food Is Dissolved. — The greatest changes that 
food undergoes in digestion are brought about by sub- 
stances called enzymes, or ferments, which are contained in 
the different digestive juices. These ferments have the 
power to reduce toods to simpler substances that dissolve 
in liquids and pass readily into the blood. In some way 
they bring about great changes and are not themselves 
affected. There are many of these ferments, each acting 
on a different class of food. 

In the Mouth. — In order to make it easy for the digestive 
juices to act, the food is first ground fine in the mouth by 
the teeth. The saliva softens the food and makes it easy 
to swallow. At the same time the ptyalin in it begins to 
act on starch, changing it to sugar. 

In the Stomach. — In the stomach the food is mixed with 
the gastric juice secreted from the walls of the stomach. 
This juice contains the ferment rennin, which curdles milk. 
and pepsin, which partially dissolves proteins. The stom- 

(62) 



DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY 63 

ach by muscular movement churns the food and makes it 
like moderately thick soup, and gradually passes it into 
the small intestine. 

In the Intestines.— In the small intestine digestion goes 
on most extensively. Here the bile from the liver, the 
pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and the intestinal juice 
from the walls of the intestine pour in and are mixed with 
the food. Starch is changed to simple sugars, proteins are 
changed to simpler substances, and fats are emulsified. 
Here also by far the largest part of the food is absorbed 
into the blood and lymphatics. 

In the large intestine the processes of digestion and 
absorption continue at a slower rate, until all digestible 
food substances are absorbed. The indigestible matter is 
finally eliminated from the body. 

Relation of Cookery to Digestion.— In the proper diges- 
tion and nutrition of the body, one thing depends upon 
another. Food cannot be digested without the aid of gen- 
erous quantities of the digestive juice; and when there is 
no flow of the digestive juices, there is no appetite. Some 
things which influence appetite and digestion are:— 

1. Foods vary greatly in ease of digestion, due to dif- 
ferences in composition and structure. It is important to 
know these differences. 

2. Foods differ also in their effects on the body. ^ Some 
kinds are needed for their tonic effects, some for their laxa- 
tive properties, and so on. It is essential to have variety 
and balance in the diet. 

3. The method of cooking may be favorable or un- 
favorable to digestion. Some foods should not be cooked; 
others, only in certain ways. It is important to know the 
effects of cooking on food. 



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«6 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

4. Pleasing flavors stimulate the flow of gastric juice 
and create appetite. Knowledge of the use of soups, 
extractives, and seasonings, and how to retain natural 
flavors is useful. 

5. Even the sight of food may influence the appetite 
for it. It is of value to know how to serve food properly. 

6. Thorough mastication and mixing of the food with 
saliva in eating is a very helpful aid to digestion. 

7. Moderation, — not over-eating or eating at all hours, 
— is necessary in order not to exhaust the stomach or cause 
indigestion or other disorders of the body. 

8. A pleasant frame of mind when eating, induced by 
pleasing surroundings, agreeable company and conversa- 
tion, and absence of worry, — all favor good appetite and 
good digestion. To have all things contribute to cheer- 
fulness at mealtime, is a supreme test of good housekeeping. 

It will be seen that those who control the selection and 
preparation of food have far-reaching influence on the health 
and, therefore, on the happiness of those whom they serve. 
It is the purpose of domestic science studies to teach the 
principles of foods and their preparation and use, and the 
application of those principles. 



LESSON 7 



CARBOHYDRATES— FRUIT 



Definition. — Fruits, in the popular sense, are the seed 
vessels of plants. 

Composition of Fruit 



Fruit 



Apples 

Apricots 

Bananas 

Blackberries 

Cherries 

Cranberries 

Currants 

Grapes 

Oranges 

Peaches 

Pears 

Pineapples 

Plums 

Black raspberries 
Red raspberries . . 
Strawberries. . . . 

DRIED FRUITS 

Apples 

Apricots 

Currants 

Dates 

Figs 

Pears 

Prunes 

Raisins 



Protein 
per cent 



A 
1.1 
1.3 
1.3 
1. 

.4 
1.5 
1.3 

.8 

.7 
1. 

A 
1. 
1.7 
1. 
1. 

1.6 
4.7 
2.4 
2.1 
4.3 
2.8 
2.1 
2.6 



Carbohy- 
drate 
per cent 


Fat 
per cent 


13. 

13.4 

21. 


.5 
.6 



.4 
16.5 

8.4 
12.8 
14.9 
11.6 

5.8 
15.7 

9.3 
20.1 
12.6 

9.7 

6. 



62. 

62.5 

71.2 

74.6 

68. 

66. 

71.2 

73.6 



1.6 

.2 
A 
.5 
.3 



2:2 

1. 
1.7 
2.8 
.3 
5.4 

3.3 



Cellulose 




(crude 


Mineral 


fiber) 


matter 


per cent 


per cent 


1.2 


.3 





.5 


1. 


.8 


2.5 


.5 


.2 


6 


1.4 


15 

.7 
,5 


4.3 





.5 


3.6 


.4 


1.5 


.4 


.4 


.3 
.5 


2.9 


.6 
.6 


1.4 


.6 


6.1 


2.0 





2.4 


3. 


4.5 


3.8 


1.3 


6.2 


2.4 


6.9 


2.4 


2.1 


2.3 


2.5 


3.4 



Water 
per cent 

84.6 

85. 

753 

86 3 

809 

88.9 

85. 

77 4 

86.9 

89.4 

80.9 

89.3 

78.3 

84.1 

85.8 

90.4 

26.1 
29.4 
17.2 
15.4 
18.8 
16.6 
22.3 
14.6 



Composition. — Fresh fruits contain water (75 to 90 per 
cent), sugar, cellulose, acids, and salts, with very little, 
if any, protein or fat. When ripe, fruits contain no starch, 

(67) 



68 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

for the ripening process changes the starch to sugar and 
gums. One of the gum-like substances is pectin, a sub- 
stance in plants similar to gelatin in meat. 

Kinds. — There are many kinds of fruit. The most com- 
mon fresh fruits are apples, peaches, pears, cherries, plums, 
grapes, bananas, pineapples, and berries. 

Food Value. — Most fresh fruits are low in food value; 
but they refresh and cool the system and furnish us with 
mineral salts, of sodium, calcium, phosphorus, etc., which 
purify the blood. The large amount of cellulose aids 
digestion, as it supplies bulk to the food and excites the 
flow of the digestive juices. The acids which fruits contain 
stimulate the appetite for other food. Dried fruits have 
for their chief food value a high percentage of sugar. 

The common dried fruits are prunes (dried plums), 
raisins (dried grapes), figs, dates, apricots, and apples. 

Rules for Eating Fruit. — 1. Use only sound, ripe fruit. 
Unripe fruit is not digestible, unless cooked, and overripe 
fruit is of inferior flavor and is apt to interfere with diges- 
tion. 

2. Fruit from street venders should not be used, as it 
is nearly always too ripe and unclean. 

3. Do not eat acid foods with milk or cream. Why? 

4. Cook overripe fruit to make it safe for use. 

5. Use sweet fruits, as dates and figs, with cereals, since 
they supply the necessary sugar. 

6. Do not swallow the tough skins of fruits or the 
seeds of such fruit as the grape and apple. 

7. Serve fruits cold. 

8. Serve fruits in season. They are more economical. 

Care of Fruit. — 1. Fruit should be kept covered and 
cool. 



CARBOHYDRATES— FRUITS 69 

2. Wash or wipe off all fruit when it comes from the 
market. Rinse off berries quickly and drain. 

3. Do not soak fruit, as it loses its flavor. 

4. Cook fruit in dishes other than tin, as the acid acts 
on tin and forms a poison dangerous to the body. 

5. Pare peaches just before serving, for they discolor 
quickly. 

Cooking Fruit. — Fruit is usually either baked or stewed. 

Baking is used with large, watery, whole fruit; as, peach- 
es, apples, or pears. 

Stewing. — Cut large fruit in pieces. Leave small fruit 
and berries whole. Put into a saucepan with one-half as 
much water as fruit, and allow }i to J^ c. of sugar to each 
pint of fruit. The juice must cover the fruit. If it does 
not, add more water. Cook fruit until soft, but not mushy. 
If more sugar is needed, add it when nearly done. If the 
sirup is too thin, remove the fruit and boil down the sirup; 
then pour it back over the fruit. Hard fruits, like quince, 
should be cooked until tender before adding the sugar. 
Cook cranberries and strawberries without sugar ; add it 
just at the last. The berries are a brighter red and the 
jelly clearer than when cooked with the sugar, besides 
less sugar will be required. Why? 

Dried fruit. — Wash fruit well in several waters. Soak 

the fruit in fresh water several hours or over night. Cook 

until tender; then sweeten to taste and cook a few minutes 

longer. 

APPLICATION 

1. Baked Apples 

Method. — Pare and core good, uniform apples. Put 
into a baking pan, fill the center of each apple with sugar, 
and add a bit of butter on the top. Add enough water to 
cover the bottom of the pan. Cinnamon or nutmeg may 



70 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

be sprinkled on top if desired. Bake in a hot oven 
until soft; baste with the juice in the pan. 

2. Apple Sauce 
6 tart apples Small piece of lemon rind 

}/2 c. water 6 whole cloves (if desired) 

Yz c. sugar 

Method. — Wipe, core, peel, and quarter the apples. 
Some apples may be cooked with the peel. Put the water, 
sugar, and lemon rind into a saucepan and cook 4 or 5 
minutes; then add the apples. Cook until tender, being 
careful not to mash the apples much ; remove the lemon peel 
and cloves and serve cold. If apples are quite soft and 
cook up much, mash them or put through a vegetable press. 

(Each two use 1 apple.) 

3. Cranberry Sauce 

1 pt. cranberries 1 c. sugar 

2 c. water 

Method. — Pick over and wash the cranberries. Put 
into the saucepan with the water and cook about 10 minutes; 
then add the sugar che last few minutes of cooking. Cran- 
berries cooked without the sugar, and uncovered, retain 
their color and make a clearer sauce. 

(Each two use % rule.) 

4. Stewed Prunes 
1 lb. prunes 3^ c. sugar 

1 qt. water 2 or 3 slices of lemon 

Method. — Wash the prunes thoroughly; put in clean 
water and let soak over night. Next morning put the 
prunes on to cook in the same water they soaked in ; cook 
slowly, covered, till the skins are soft. Add the sugar and 
the lemon juice when nearly done. Apricots are cooked 
in the same way. 

(Basis for 2 girls, Y% rule.) 



CARBOHYDRA TE8— FRUITS 



71 



6. Fruit Cocktails 

These are served as an appetizer at the beginning of 
a dinner, and may be made from a variety of fruits. Serve 
them in dainty tall glasses, or in baskets made from half 
oranges or grapefruits. 

Orange and Grapefruit. — Mix equal parts of diced 
orange and grapefruit pulp. Sprinkle with sugar and a 
little lemon juice. Place on ice until chilled. Fill the 
chilled glasses just before 
serving, garnish with 
wedges of fresh or pre- 
served pineapple and a 
candied or Maraschino 
cherry. 

Strawberry and pine- 
apple make a nice com- 
bination, as do also grape- 
fruit and strawberries. 

Watermelon. — Cut 
with a vegetable cutter 
into little one-inch balls. 
Chill and serve in a tall 
glass with chipped ice. 
Garnish with mint. Fig . 8 . A fruit cocktail . 




LESSON 8 

SOUPS 

Kinds. — There are two kinds. of soup: (1) soups with 
stock and (2) soups without stock. 

Soups with stock have as a basis the juices of meats, 
and are divided into several classes, which we shall study 
in connection with the meat lessons. 

Soups without stock have as a basis milk or cream, 
together with the pulp of vegetables. There are three 
divisions of soups without stock: — 

(a) Cream soup, made of vegetables or fish together 
with milk, cream, and seasoning or with a thin white sauce. 

(b) Purees are made of boiled vegetables or fish put 
through a strainer, together with a thin white sauce. These 
contain more vegetables than the cream soups and are 
therefore thicker. 

(c) Bisques are made of shellfish or vegetables with 
thin white sauce, and are served with fish dice. 

Soups without stock, when allowed to stand, separate; 
that is, the vegetables separate from the milk or cream, 
unless bound together. Materials that bind or keep the 
solid part from settling to the bottom are called binding 
materials, examples of which are flour and cornstarch. 
The best way of binding materials is by using a thin 
white sauce. 

Left-over vegetables or those too old to serve whole are 
good for use in cream soups. They make an economical 
dish, as well as a very nourishing one. Removing the 
hard cellulose fiber by forcing the pulp through a strainer 
makes cream soups very easily digested. 

(72) 



SOUPS 73 

General proportions for cream soups or soups without 
stock are: About one half as much vegetable pulp as 
white sauce, plus the seasoning — salt and pepper. 

Proportions for white sauce: — 

2 tbsp. butter Salt and pepper 

1 tbsp. flour to 1 c. of milk 

If the vegetables contain a large amount of starch, use 
less flour. If lacking in starch, use from 1 to 3 tbsp. of flour. 
Name an example where less flour is necessary. 
Name an example where more flour is necessary. 
General Directions for Soups without Stock. — 

1. Cook the vegetables in water until very soft; then 
press them through a vegetable press or strainer. Add 
the water in which the vegetables were cooked. 

2. Make the white sauce in a double boiler, using 
Method 2, Lesson 4. 

3. To make the soup richer, use part cream instead of 
all milk, or add beaten egg or a couple of spoonfuls of 
whipped cream to the soup just before serving. 

4. Combine vegetable pulp and white sauce and serve. 
Do not let soup stand long, as it is likely to become too thick. 

5. Serve soups very hot. 

6. Serve crisp crackers or toasted bread in sticks or 
cubes with soup. 

Vegetables best suited for soups are: potatoes, peas, 
beans, celery, tomatoes, asparagus, carrots, and turnips. 
Onionsare used foradditionalflavoringin any soup, if desired. 

Food Value. — Soups without stock have a higher food 
value than soups with stock. The milk or cream of the 
white sauce furnishes the protein to build and repair tissue 
and the vegetables contain starch and mineral substances. 
Soups are easily digested, are nourishing, and are appetizers 
for the courses that follow. 



74 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



APPLICATION 



1. Cream of Pea Soup 
1 pt. can of peas 1 tsp. sugar 

1 pt. cold water 1 qt. thin white sauce 

Method. — Boil the peas in the water until soft. Rub 

them through a coarse strainer or vegetable press, and to 

the pulp add the water the peas were cooked in. Make a 

thin white sauce and combine with the peas. 

(Each 2 use % c. white sauce and % c. peas.) 

2. Cream of Corn Soup 

1 pt. can of corn 1 slice onion 

1 pt. cold water 1 qt. thin white sauce 

Method. — The method is the same as in Cream of Pea 

Soup. 

3. Cream of Potato and Cream of Celery Soup 

Method. — These are both made with the same propor- 
tions and in the same way as Cream of Corn Soup. 

(Each 2 use same basis as in 1.) 

4. Cream of Tomato Soup 

1 c. tomatoes 1 pt. milk 

}/i tsp. soda 2 tbsp. butter 

2 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. salt 

Pepper 

Method. — Cook the tomatoes for 10 minutes. Remove 
from the fire, strain, and add the soda. Return to the fire 
and keep hot until ready to serve. Make a thin white 
sauce of the rest of the ingredients, using Method 1, Lesson 4. 
Keep sauce hot until ready to serve. Immediately before 
serving pour the tomato into the white sauce. This soup 
will curdle if combined too long. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % c. white sauce, % c. tomatoes.) 

5. Croutons 

Method. — Cut slices of bread J^ inch thick; then cut 
into cubes. Put in the oven and toast to a delicate brown. 
Serve with soup. 

(Housekeepers prepare croutons for class.)' 



LESSON 9 

PROTEIN— EGGS 

The eggs most commonly used in cooking are hens' eggs, 
although eggs from other domestic fowls and wild birds are 
used where available. 

Structure. — A hen's egg consists of the following parts : — 

1. The shell. 

2. Two tough membranes just inside the shell. 

3. The white, a clear, jelly-like substance. 

4. The yolk, which is surrounded by a thin membrane 
and held in place by — 

5. Two twisted cords. 

6. The embryo, in the yolk. This embryo is the living 
part of the egg, from which the chick grows, much as the 
wheat grows from the germ in the grain. The contents of 
the egg furnish the embryo food, just as the starch does the 
germ of the grain. 

7. Air space, found at the large end of the egg between 
the two membranes. 

Composition. — The shell is composed of mineral matter, 
chiefly lime. 

The white, or albumen, is nearly pure albumin and water. 
Albumin is a sticky substance, and is a protein. 

The yolk contains much fat or oil, some albumin, mineral 
matter, and water. The mineral matter consists of phos- 
phorus, calcium, iron, lime, and sulphur. 

What food principle is lacking in eggs? 

Composition of Eggs 

Protein Fat Mineral matter Water 

14.9% 10.6% 1% 73.5% 

(75) 



76 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Food Value. — Owing to the large amount of protein in 
eggs, they are valuable as a tissue-building food, and may 
be used as a meat substitute. One pound of eggs, usually 
about nine, contains as much nutriment as one pound of 
meat. 

Raw eggs and those properly cooked are very easily 
digested and assimilated in the body. 

Trace protein through the process of digestion. 

Tests for Fresh Eggs. — 1. Fresh eggs have slightly 
rough shells. 

2. Fresh eggs sink to the bottom in a pan of cold water. 
Stale eggs float. What is the reason for this? 

3. Fresh eggs are clear when placed between the eye 
and a bright light in a dark room. Stale eggs are cloudy. 
This method of testing is used extensively in egg markets 
and is called "candling." 

Care of Eggs. — 1. As soon as eggs come from the mar- 
ket wipe any soiled ones with a damp cloth, and put only 
clean, fresh eggs in the ice box. 

2. Keep eggs in a cool, dry place. 

3. Do not keep in a place containing food with strong 
odos's, which eggs readily absorb. 

4. Egg yolks will keep fresh for some time if covered 
with clean, cold water and kept in a cool place. 

Uses for Eggs. — Eggs are used very extensively in the 
dietary and in cooking. Name as many uses as you can 
and state why they are so used. 

Preservation of Eggs. — Preserve only fresh, clean eggs 
in the spring and early summer, when they are plentiful and 
cheap. Any method which excludes the air helps to keep 
eggs fresh. The packing or preserving material for eggs 
must be absolutely clean, since eggs are easily tainted in 
flavor. Eggs may be preserved in the following ways: — 



PROTEIN— EGGS 77 

1. Pack dry in sawdust, salt, bran, oats, or sand, with 
the small end down. 

2. Put in jars containing salt brine, limewater, or 
water glass enough to cover the eggs. 

3. Coat with paraffin, lard, or oil. 

4. Put in cold storage. 

What is the object of preserving eggs? What causes 
eggs to spoil? 

The Water-glass Method. — The water-glass method is 
the most satisfactory home means of preserving eggs, and is 
very easily applied. For every quart of water glass (silicate 
of soda) solution use 9 quarts of boiled water that has been 
cooled. Mix the ingredients thoroughly and put into a 
clean stone jar. Place the eggs in the solution and see that 
all are covered by several inches of the liquid. Keep the 
jars in a cool place and well covered to prevent evaporation. 

Eggs preserved in this manner are as good as fresh eggs 
for all cooking purposes. 

The Cold Storage Method. — Eggs are produced in great- 
est abundance in the spring and summer months. For- 
merly they were very plentiful and very cheap during those 
months, and very scarce and expensive in the winter. Now, 
the cold storage system and refrigerator cars have changed 
this. Both the time of marketing and the market area of 
eggs have been extended, and as a result egg prices have 
become more uniform throughout the year. 

When properly handled and kept at a temperature just 
above freezing, 32° to 40°F., cold storage eggs are whole- 
some. They are usually kept not over eight or nine 
months. 

EFFECT OF HEAT ON ALBUMEN 

Experiments. — 1. Put some egg white into a tumbler 
of cold water and shake or beat well. Notice any results. 



7f DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

2. Put some egg white in boiling water. What hap- 
pens? 

3. Put an egg into boiling water, remove from the fire 
and let stand ten minutes. Notice the consistency of the 
white. 

4. Put an egg into boiling water and boil ten minutes; 
remove from the fire and compare with the result of Experi- 
ment 3. 

5. Put an egg into cold water and bring to the boiling 
point. Remove from the fire and compare with Experi- 
ments 3 and 4. 

From the experiments what do you find is the correct 
temperature for cooking albumen? Why? Compare with 
the temperature for cooking starch. 

Cooking of Eggs. — Eggs and egg mixtures must be cooked 
at a moderate temperature, of from 160° to 185° Fahrenheit. 

How to Break an Egg. — 1 . Hold the egg in the left hand 
and strike it with a knife blade. Press the thumbs into 
the crack and pull the shell apart. 

2. Or strike the egg against the side of a mixing bowl 
and then open with the thumbs. 

To Separate White from Yolk. — Crack egg, hold yolk 
in one half of the shell and let the white run on a plate. 
Then slip the yolk to the other half of the shell, holding the 
edges of the shell together, and drain off all the white. Put 
yolk into a bowl. 

Note. — Always break eggs separately into a dish to 

make sure they are fresh before adding to other eggs or to 

a mixture. 

APPLICATION 

1. Soft-Cooked Eggs 

Method. — (a) Allow about one pint of water, or enough to 
cover two eggs. Place eggs in cold water in a saucepan. 



PROTEIN— EGGS 7t 

Bring water to boiling point slowly. Remove eggs and 

serve in hot cups. 

(b) Place eggs in a saucepan containing enough boiling 

water to cover. Let stand on back of the stove from 8 to 

10 minutes. 

2. Hard-Cooked Eggs 

Method. — Place eggs in a saucepan containing enough 

boiling water to cover. Let stand where water will keep 

hot, but not boil, for 40 or 45 minutes; or boil slowly for 8 

minutes. 

3. Poached Eggs 

Method. — Prepare a slice of buttered toast for each egg. 
Cut with a round cutter or muffin ring. Keep warm. 
Have ready a shallow pan containing enough salted water 
to cover the eggs (let the water boil and then remove pan 
to back of stove). Break each egg separately into a saucer 
and slip it gently into the water, being careful that water 
does not reach the boiling point. Cook until the white is 
firm and a film forms over the top of the yolk. Remove the 
egg from the water with a skimmer or a griddle-cake turner. 
Drain, and place the eggs on toast. Garnish with parsley, 
if you like. An egg poacher may be used. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 1 egg.) 

4. Eggs a la Suisse 

4 eggs Salt 

x /2 c. cream White pepper 

1 tbsp. butter Cayenne 

2 tbsp. grated cheese 

Method. — Melt butter in a small omelet pan ; add cream. 
Break eggs separately into a saucer and slip gently into the 
pan, one at a time; sprinkle with salt, pepper, and a few 
grains of cayenne. When whites are nearly firm, sprinkle 
with cheese. Finish cooking, and serve on buttered toast. 
Strain cream over the toast. 



80 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

5. Baked Eggs 

Method. — Butter a ramekin or muffin tin. Line with 
fine cracker crumbs. Break egg into a cup and slip into 
ramekin; season, and cover with buttered crumbs. Bake 
in a moderate oven until crumbs are brown. 

6. Baked Egg in Potato 

Method. — Remove inside of each baked potato, mash 
and season. Refill shell, leaving room for an egg. Break 
the egg into the potato, bake until firm. 

Eggs may also be baked in small tomatoes. Cut a 
slice from stem end of tomato. Scoop out pulp and 
slip in an egg. Season, cover with buttered crumbs, and 

bake. 

7. Stuffed Eggs 

1 tsp. vinegar 1 tbsp. melted butter 
yi tsp. mustard Salt and pepper 

Hard-boiled eggs 

Method. — Put eggs into cold water, bring slowly to boil- 
ing point, and boil 3 to 5 minutes. Drop into cold water. 
Remove shell, cut egg in half lengthwise, take out the yolk, 
mash, mix with mixture, and refill whites. 

8. French Toast 

2 eggs 1 c. milk 

Y2 tsp. salt 6 slices of bread 

Method. — Beat the eggs slightly, add salt and milk. 
Strain and dip the bread in the mixture, cook on a hot 
well greased griddle until brown, turn and brown the other 
side. 

The center of each piece of bread may be cut out 
with a small biscuit cutter and after it is placed on the 
griddle an egg slipped into the center of each piece. Saute 
as plain French Toast. 



LESSON 10 

PROTEIN— EGGS (Continued) 

Beating Eggs. — Eggs are beaten in order to introduce 
air into a mixture. The elasticity of the albumen of the 
egg makes it possible to enfold air into the egg. Is it pos- 
sible to introduce air into materials like sirup, flour, paste, 
etc.? Why not? 

Ways of Beating. — 1. Beat yolks in a bowl with a 
Dover beater. 

2. Beat whites on a platter or in a large bowl with a 
wire whisk or a fork. 

Consistency when Beaten. — Yolks when well beaten 
are thick and lighter colored than before beating. 

Whites are beaten stiff when the whisk comes out clean. 

Whites are beaten dry when the gloss is gone and the 
beaten mixture comes off the beater easily. 

Methods of Combining Mixtures. — (1) Stirring, (2) 
beating, (3) folding, and (4) cutting. 

Stirring is used in combining when air is not neces- 
sary to the ingredients. Use circular motion, round and 
round until all is mixed. 

, Beating is used to introduce air into a mixture, and 
is done by lifting the mixture up and over on a spoon with 
a rapid movement. Continue until the mixture is full of 
bubbles. 

Folding is used (a) to add a beaten mixture to another; 
as, in adding beaten whites to a batter; or (b) to add ingre- 
dients, as baking powder, for example, to a batter having 
beaten eggs in it, without breaking the air bubbles already 
contained in the mixture. 

—6 (81) 



82 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Folding is done by carefully turning the mixture over 
and over and drawing it constantly from the bottom of 
the bowl to the surface. 

Cutting is mixing by means of kni /es, as is done with 

shortening. 

APPLICATION 

1. Puffy Omelet 

3 eggs \i tsp. salt 

3 tbsp. water White pepper 

1 tbsp. butter 

Method. — Separate yolks from whites of eggs. Beat 

yolks until thick; add water and salt. Fold in beaten 

whites of egg. Melt butter in an omelet-pan , turn in egg 

mixture, spread evenly, cook slowly, occasionally turning 

the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly. Then 

when it is well puffed up and delicately browned underneath 

place pan in hot oven to finish cooking the top. The 

omelet is cooked if it is firm to the touch when pressed with 

the finger. Fold, and turn on a hot platter. Serve at once. 
(Basis for 2 girls, 1 egg.) 

To Fold an Omelet. — Hold the omelet pan by the handle 
with the left hand. Crease the omelet slightly across the 
center at right angles to the handle of the pan. Slip the 
spatula under the edge of the omelet farthest from the 
handle of the pan and, tipping the pan up, fold the omelet 
over half way towards the handle. With the right hand 
invert a hot plate over the pan, and with a quick movement 
turn the omelet out of the pan upon the plate. Garnish 
with parsley and serve immediately. The success of an 
omelet of this kind depends upon the amount of air en- 
closed in the egg and the expansion of the air in cooking. 

2. Fancy Omelets 

A fancy omelet may be made by the addition of grated 
cheese, minced ham, or other meat sprinkled over the top 



PROTEIN— EGGS 



S3 




p <g. 9 Folding an omelet. 



84 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

just before folding. Parsley, oysters, or vegetables finely 
cut may also be used. 

A sweet omelet is made by spreading soft jelly or pre- 
serves and powdered sugar over the top. 

3. French Omelet 

3 eggs Yv tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. hot water or milk 1 tbsp. butter 

Pepper 

Method. — Beat eggs slightly, add water and seasoning. 
Heat the omelet pan, melt the butter and let it run over the 
bottom and sides of the pan. Turn in the mixture, and cook 
slowly. When thick at one side, roll the mixture over to 
the other side, like a jelly roll. When all is evenly cooked, 
roll out upon a hot plate. Garnish and serve. 

One egg is allowed to each person for any omelet. 



4. 


Scrambled Eggs 


5 eggs 
Y% c. milk 


}/i tsp. salt 
Y% tsp. pepper 




2 tbsp. butter 



Method. — Beat eggs slightly, add salt, pepper and milk. 
Melt butter in an omelet pan, turn in egg mixture and cook 
slowly, scraping from the bottom and sides of the pan 
when the mixture first sets. Cook until creamy. Turn 
it upon a hot dish and serve at once. 

5. Scrambled Eggs with Tomato Sauce 

6 eggs 2 tsp. sugar 

Vyi c. tomato sauce 1 slice onion 

4 tbsp. butter 3^ tsp. salt 

Pepper 

Method. — Simmer tomatoes and sugar. Fry onion in 
butter 3 minutes, 'and add eggs which have been slightly 
beaten and added to tomato sauce. Add a speck of soda 
to the tomato sauce. Stir slowly until eggs are cooked 
and jelly-like. 



PROTEIN— EGGS 85 

6. Eggs a la Goldenrod 
3 hard-boiled eggs % tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. butter 3^ tsp. pepper 

2 tbsp. flour 5 slices toast 

1 c. milk Parsley 

Method. — Mix flour and butter together until smooth; 
add the milk slowly, stirring constantly; cook until smooth. 
Add salt and pepper. Separate yolks from whites of eggs. 
Chop whites fine and add them to the sauce. Cut 4 slices 
of toast in halves lengthwise, arrange on platter, and pour 
the sauce over them. Force the yolks through a strainer 
and sprinkle over the top. Garnish with parsley. 

7. Creamy Omelet 

1 c. white sauce No. 11 Yi tsp. salt 

3 eggs 1 tbsp. fat 

Method. — Follow the rule for puffy omelet, using Y2 c. 
of white sauce in place of the water. When the omelet is 
done, turn into a hot platter and pour the remainder of the 
white sauce around it. Peas, cheese, or meat cubes may be 
added to the white sauce before pouring around the omelet. 



LESSON 11 

PROTEIN— MILK 

Milk is such a common and important food and is so 
closely connected with the public health that it deserves 
careful study. Good milk is a yellowish-white liquid with 
a faint odor and a sweet taste. When allowed to stand, a 
thick cream rises to the top, and there is no sediment. 
Rich milk clings to the sides of the glass; poor milk has a 
bluish-white color and forms little cream. 

Composition. — Different samples of milk may vary 
greatly in composition, especially in the amount of fat. An 
average composition is as follows: — 

Water Protein Carbohydrates Fat Mineral matter 

87% 3.3% 5% 4% .7% 

The protein in milk is casein and albumin, in the pro- 
portion of about six to one. The casein is precipitated by 
the presence of acid, as when lactic acid is formed in the 
souring of milk. The ferment rennin, found in the stomach 
of milk-drinking animals, also causes coagulation of the 
casein. The albumin is coagulated by heat. 

The carbohydrates of milk are in solution in the form 
of lactose, or milk sugar. A part of this is changed to lactic 
acid by the action of the bacteria that cause milk to sour. 

The fat in milk is held in suspension in the form of 
minute globules, so finely divided that as many as ten billion 
may be contained in a single drop. These gradually rise to 
the surface, forming cream. 

The mineral salts include all those found in the animal 
body, such as lime, phosphates, potash, and others. 

'86) 



PROTEIN— MILK 8? 

Food Value. — Milk is a complete food, since it contains 
all the food principles, and therefore builds and repairs 
tissues and gives heat and energy. It serves much the same 
purpose to the young of animals as the egg serves the 
unhatched chick. The large amount of water in milk is 
useful for the young in building and filling out the tissues. 
For an older person, however, milk contains too much 
water and not enough carbohydrates; about five quarts a 
day would have to be consumed to supply the body needs. 
Yet milk is really a concentrated food, since fully a third of 
the solid portion is protein and an ther third is fat. These 
nutrients are in such finely divided form as to be very 
easily digested. This is especially true when milk is taken 
along with other foods. Milk should be sipped slowly, and 
the greatest benefit is derived when taken at regular inter- 
vals or at night before retiring. 

Souring of Milk.— As has been explained, milk is soured 
by lactic acid produced by bacteria. When milk is warm 
the bacteria increase very rapidly, thus hastening souring. 
The acid separates the protein (casein) from the water and 
forms the curd (the thick part), leaving the whey (the liquid 
part). The whey contains, besides water, nearly all of the 
milk sugar, which gives to it its chief food value. Clean 
fresh milk carefully handled to exclude dirt should keep 
sweet for several days. 

Adulteration of Milk. — The fat is so valuable for cream 
or butter that sometimes much of it is removed before the 
milk is sold. The commonest method of adulteration is to 
add water, which, unless much is added, is hard to detect. 
What is worse, chemical preservatives are sometimes 
added to kill bacteria or retard their growth, in order to 
keep the milk sweet and carry it great distances. The 
chemicals used are boric acid, formalin, and salicylic acid. 



88 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

These are very harmful, especially to infants, and conceal 
unclean methods of handling milk. Such milk can be 
detected when it does not sour easily or becomes thick and 
develops a bitter taste. State and national pure-food laws 
and city ordinances are gradually doing away with these 
abuses. 

Purchase and Care of Milk. — No other food so quickly 
absorbs odors and impurities and requires more careful 
handling than milk. It is often a common way of spread- 
ing certain diseases, such as diphtheria, typhoid, and scarlet 
fever. The secret of clean milk is, production under clean 
surroundings, prompt cooling, and keeping it cool and pro- 
tected from dust and dirt until it is used in the home. Some 
rules to follow are: — 

1 . Buy milk from sources you know to be clean and pure. 

2. Buy milk in covered bottles rather than in bulk. 

3. Keep milk in scalded glass or earthen dishes, or in 
the original bottles. 

4. Keep milk cold, for then germs develop much less 
rapidly. 

5. Keep milk from flies, dust, and odors by keeping 
covered. 

Pasteurization. — In times of disease epidemics or when 
there is a suspicion that the milk is not pure, it is pasteur- 
ized to kill dangerous germs. Pasteurization consists in 
heating the milk to a temperature of from 150° to 180° F. 
for 20 minutes or more and then rapidly cooling it to 50° F. 
or lower. Pasteurized milk is not necessarily clean milk, — 
in fact sometimes farmers and dealers rely too much on this 
system and are not so careful to maintain a pure product 
Pasteurization can easily be done in the home. 

Sterilization consists in heating milk to the boiling 
point for 15 or 20 minutes. The process may be repeated 



PROTEIN— MILE 89 

after an interval to make the result doubly certain. This 
destroys practically all bacteria in it, but it has the disad- 
vantage that the taste is spoiled for many persons and also 
that the mifk is probably made less digestible. 

Scalding Milk. — Heat milk in a double boiler until 
bubbles appear around the edge of the milk. This occurs 
at about 160° F. and this heating makes milk safer lor use, 
as it kills many forms of germs. Boiling milk or scalding 
it too long makes it less digestible. What substance in 
milk should be cooked below the boiling point? 

Condensed Milk. — This is milk that is evaporated in 
vacuum pans to one-third or one-fourth its original bulk 
and then sealed in air-tight cans, in which it will keep indef- 
initely. Sometimes cane sugar is added to increase its keeping 
qualities. Condensed milk enables milk to be carried and 
kept in many places, such as on board ship and in the 
tropics, where fresh milk is not obtainable. When it is 
to be used, increase its volume two or three times by adding 
water. It may then be used the same as fresh milk. 

APPLICATION 

1. Baked Custard 

4 sc. c. scalded milk 3^ c. sugar 

4 to 6 eggs 1 tsp. vanilla 

Few gratings of nutmeg Pinch of salt 

Method. — Beat the egg slightly, add the sugar, and 
then the scalded milk slowly. Add the flavoring and stir 
until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into cups or into one 
large baking dish, grate a little nutmeg on top, set the cups 
in a pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven until a 
knife piercing it will come out clean. Do not allow the wa- 
ter in the pan to boil. Serve cold. This serves 7 persons. 

(Basis for 2 girls, %i rule.) 



90 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

2. Soft Custard 

Method. — Same recipe as for Baked Custard. Combine 
ingredients by same method, but cook in a double boiler. 
Stir constantly until the mixture forms a coating on the 
spoon. Remove instantly from the hot water; flavor, and 
cool. 

{Basis for 2 girls, Y% rule!) 

3. Caramel Custard 
4 c. scalded milk 1 tsp. vanilla 

4 eggs or 6 yolks 1 c. sugar 

Method,. — Melt the sugar to a light brown sirup in a 
saucepan over a hot fire. Add the scalded milk very 
gradually and cook until free from lumps. Pour this 
gradually into the slightly-beaten eggs. Add the flavor- 
ing and bake as in Baked Custard. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) 

4. Chocolate Custard 

2 c. milk 3^ sq. Baker's chocolate 

3 eggs 2 tbsp. water 
]/2 c. sugar }/2 tsp. vanilla 

Pinch of salt 

Method. — Scald the milk. Melt the chocolate, add half 
the sugar and the water, and cook until smooth. Pour 
the scalded milk into the chocolate mixture and stir until 
it is smooth. Add the eggs slightly beaten, the remainder 
of the sugar, and the salt. Strain into buttered molds 
and bake the same as Baked Custard. Whipped cream 
or a meringue is nice added to the top. 

5. Custard Souffle 
2 tbsp. butter 1 c. milk 

2 tbsp. flour 4 eggs 

2 tbsp. sugar Fresh or preserved fruit 

(Peaches or apricots are best) 

Method. — Scald the milk in a double boiler. Stir the 
flour and the butter together, add the scalded milk grad- 



PROTEIN— MILK 91 

ually, and cook 5 minutes, stirring constantly. Beat the 
e gg yolks and add the sugar; then add to the milk. Set the 
mixture away to cool. When cool add the stiffly beaten 
whites of eggs, pour into a buttered baking dish, and bake 
30 minutes. Serve at once. Fresh or preserved fruit is 
very good with this, and is added in a layer at the bottom 
of the dish and the custard souffle poured over it. 

Tapioca may be used in place of the flour to make a 
pleasing change in the rule. 



LESSON 12 

MILK PRODUCTS 

The chief products derived from milk are cream, butter, 
and cheese. 

CREAM 

Separation of Cream. — Formerly milk was allowed to 
stand in pans or cans and the cream skimmed off by hand. 
Now the cream separator is used everywhere to separate 
cream from milk. In this machine the fresh milk is made to 
revolve very rapidly, causing the heavier parts to be thrown 
outward and the cream to be crowded to the center. The 
skim milk passes off through one spout and the cream 
through another. 

Standard Cream. — Cream is required by law to contain 
at least 18 per cent butter fat. The amount of fat may 
vary from 10 to 40 per cent or more. The value of cream, of 
course, is directly in proportion to the amount of fat it 
contains, other factors, like cleanliness, being the same. 

Whipping cream is best when it contains 25 per cent 
or more of fat and is from 12 to 24 hours old. Pasteurized 
cream and separator cream will whip readily if it is at first 
kept cold, down to about 30° F., for about two hours. 

Skim Milk. — After the cream is removed from milk, 
what remains is skim milk. It contains about 4 per cent of 
protein and nearly 5 per cent milk sugar, which makes it 
a cheap, nutritious food. It should sell for about half the 
price of whole milk. 

Where whole milk is purchased, the cream may be 
removed for separate use and the skim milk used in cooking, 
since fat in some other form is usuajly added to a cooked 

am 



MILK PRODUCTS 08 

dish. This decreases the cost of milk and does not affect 
the flavor of the dish; and cream is quite an expensive 
food. 

Skim milk may be used for cream soups, white sauces, 
cakes, etc., in place of whole milk. 

BUTTER 

Manufacture of Butter. — Butter is made from the fat 
of milk by the process of churning, which causes the fat 
globules to collect into granular masses. It is then washed 
to remove protein matter, which decomposes easily, and 
is salted to preserve it and give it flavor. It is then made 
into prints or packed into tubs for the market. 

Butter may be made from either sweet or sour (ripened) 
cream. Sweet-cream butter has a very delicate flavor and 
does not possess good keeping qualities because it is not 
usually salted. The ripening of the cream and the added 
salt give to butter a stronger flavor which is preferred by 
most persons and makes it better suited for marketing 
purposes. Nearly all the butter made in the United 
States is produced in well-regulated creameries. 

Composition of Butter. — The law requires that standard 
butter should contain not less than 82.5 per cent of milk 
fat, for the butter-maker can make butter with little or 
much water as he chooses. One authority gives the fol- 
lowing as an average composition : — 

Fat Casein Salt Water 

85% 1% 3% 11% 

The quality of butter depends on the breed of cow, the 
kind of feed given, but principally on the care with which 
the milk and cream are handled. Butter has the best 
color and flavor in the spring and summer when the cows 
are on fresh grass. The flavor is influenced greatly by 



14 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the kind of bacteria that develops in the milk and cream. 
The cattle of the Guernsey breed produce butter of a natural- 
ly rich, yellow color. 

Food Value. — Butter is one of the most easily digested 
fats, and is very appetizing and healthful. With what 
foods should it be eaten, and why? 

Buttermilk is the part of the milk or cream that remains 
when the butter has been removed. It has very much 
the same composition and food value as skim milk, being 
a cheap and wholesome tissue-building food. The nutri- 
ents are very easily digested, and the acid is believed to 
exert a healthful influence in the body and is especially 
recommended to those suffering from stomach disturbances. 

Butter Substitutes. — Nutmargarines, oleomargarines 
and vegetable oils are the chief butter substitutes. Oleo- 
margarine has for its basis beef fat, lard, vegetable oil and 
milk. Nutmargarine is made from the extracted oil of 
nuts. When properly prepared they are clean and nutri- 
tious, and are much better than the butter from small 
dairies where the standards and sanitary conditions are 
not of the best. They may be substituted for butter in 
cooking, and are more economical. The odors from old 
and rancid butter are often removed by melting the butter 
and blowing air through it, after which the material is 
churned in milk and then resold as renovated butter. 

To distinguish butter substitutes from butter, dis- 
solve a small quantity in a saucepan and bring to a boil. 
Beef fats boil noisily and make little foam; butter makes 
very little noise and much foam. 

CHEESE 

Cheese is the casein and fat of milk, drained, salted, 
and pressed. It is an important means of putting milk, 
a bulky and perishable food, into concentrated form, ena- 



MILK PRODUCTS IS 

bling it to be stored for future use and transported to dis- 
tant markets. 

Manufacture of Cheese. — Sweet cow's milk is most 
used in cheese making, but milk from the goat and ewe are 
are also used to some extent. Most of the cheese produced 
in this country is made from whole milk, but cream, par- 
tially-skimmed milk, and skim milk are also used, depend- 
ing on the kind of cheese and the desires of the manufac- 
turers. 

The main steps in the making of cheese are nearly the 
same in all varieties. The casein and fat are precipitated 
by means of rennet. The curd is then finely divided and 
the whole mass is heated to a temperature from 96° to 
108° F., resulting in the complete separation of the curd 
from the whey, which is drawn off. The curd is then salted 
and pressed and set away to cure, or ripen, for the market. 
The curing process, which may last from a few days to a 
year or longer, depending on the kind, results largely in 
the development of flavors in cheese. This is brought 
about by the action of various kinds of bacteria and molds. 
By varying the fat content and the manner of handling 
the milk and curd, and by regulating the kind of bacteria 
or mold in the ripening process, many varieties of cheese 
are made. 

Kinds of Cheese.— It is hard to classify the hundreds 
of kinds of cheeses being manufactured. In general, they 
may be divided as hard and soft cheeses, depending largely 
on the amount of water they contain. They are also sold 
as cream, whole-milk, and skim milk cheeses, depending 
upon whether fat has been added to or taken from the 
milk. 

More than 300 million pounds of cheese are made yearly 
in the United States, and three-fourths of it is known as 



96 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

factory or American cheese, which is a variety of the kind 
known as cheddar. "Full cream" American cheese is made 
from whole milk; "cream'' cheese, from cream; and "skim 
milk" cheese, from milk with all or much of the fat removed. 
Many of the foreign varieties are made and used in America 
and much foreign cheese is imported. 

Hard Cheese. — Among the more common varieties of 
hard cheese are the following : — 

Cheddar. — This is a mild-flavored cheese most common 
in this country. The American variety usually contains 
more water ; whereas that made for export is firmer, contains 
less water, and is of better flavor. We need to learn to 
appreciate and demand the better make. When fresh it 
is rather soft, but when well matured is hard and grates 
readily. It is made in various forms, much in large cakes 
15 or more inches in diameter and 5 or 6 inches thick. 
Pineapple is in smaller and more convenient form, being 
pressed firm and solid in the shape of a pineapple. Sage 
cheese is made with the addition of sage for flavor. 

Swiss cheese is readily distinguished by its sweetish, 
mild flavor and by its large holes or eyes. Much of it is 
made in this country. 

Edam cheese is made in Holland, and is round in form 
and stained red. 

Parmesan is a very hard Italian, skim-milk cheese, 
often sold grated. It keeps well in any climate, but is 
rather high in price. 

Soft Cheese. — Soft cheese is made for immediate use. 
Most varieties are relished for their high flavor; others, 
such as cream and cottage cheese, are not cured but are 
ready for use almost as soon as made. Some varieties are: — 

Neufchdtd is made from whole or skim milk, is pressed 
into small rolls or blocks, and then set away for about four 



MILK PRODUCTS 



97 



weeks to be cured by a special mold which penetrates 
through every part. It comes wrapped in tinfoil. 

Camembert has a pasty consistency, with a decided odor 
and flavor, which is produced by a reddish-brown mold. 
It is marketed in small, round, wooden boxes. 

Limburger is made from either whole or skim milk, and 
has a reddish-yellow rind. Its odor is distasteful to most 
persons. 

Roquefort is a soft or semi-soft cheese and contains a 
blue mold. It is made in France from sheep's milk and 
is cured in caves that have just the right, uniform tem- 
perature. 

Cream cheese, true to name, is made from sweet cream, 
and is sold under various brands. 

Dutch, or cottage, cheese is made from sour skim milk. 

Composition of Cheese. — The composition of cheeses 
varies. In general, they may be regarded as composed of 
about one-third protein, one-third fat, and one-third water. 
The following table gives the composition of a number of 
common varieties, as reported by various authorities: — 

The Composition of Cheese 



Kind 



Cheddar (green) 

Swiss 

Cream ... . 
Full cream 
Skim milk 
Limburger 



Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Sugar 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


36.80 


23.75 


33.75 


0.00 


36.10 


28.00 


29.50 


3.30 


36.33 


18.84 


40.71 


1.02 


38.00 


25.35 


30.25 


1.43 


46.00 


34.06 


11.65 


3.42 


35.70 


34.20 


24.20 


3.00 



Mineral 
matter 

Per cent 

5.70 
3.10 
3.10 
4.97 
4.87 
2.90 



Food Value. — Cheese has a high food value. Nearly 
all of the protein and fat of a gallon of milk is contained in 



98 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the pound of cheese made from it; it is therefore a very 
concentrated food. In general, it may be said that a 
pound of ordinary cheese is equal in food value to about 
two pounds of ordinary meat, a dozen or more eggs, and a 
pint of dried peas or beans. It may therefore be used as a 
substitute for meat, and is so used in many European 
countries. 

The latest experimental evidence goes to show that 
while cheese may remain in the stomach a little longer than 
some other foods, due to the fact that the fat is so closely 
bound up with the protein, yet it is completely and easily 
digested in quantity without harmful results. In selecting 
cheese, it must be remembered that the stronger flavored 
varieties are much higher in price and are to be regarded as 
luxuries. The mild varieties have an equally high food 
value, are comparatively cheap, and could well be used 
more extensively in place of meat in American homes. • 

Cheese should be eaten along with bread, rice, macaroni, 
or similar food, to balance the carbohydrates and to furnish 
more bulk. When used at the close of a full meal, instead of 
as a part of it, cheese is likely to overtax the system with 
much protein and fat, unless proper care is taken in plan- 
ning the meal. 

Cooking Cheese. — Cheese may be served in a great 
variety of ways. It is used with eggs and milk to make 
fondu, souffles, or rarebit; and is added to macaroni, pota- 
toes, omelet, or creamed vegetables to form a substitute for 
meat. It is served with salads or on toasted crackers and 
in cheese straws. Cheese does not require long cooking, 
which toughens it, but is sufficiently cooked when melted. 
There is nothing to show that properly cooked cheese is any 
harder to digest than that uncooked. 



MILK PRGDUGT8 39 

APPLICATION 

1. Cheese Souffle 

Z tbsp. butter Vv c grated cheese 

2 tbsp. flour 3 egg yolks 

}4 c. scalded milk 3 egg whites 

Yi tsp. salt Cayenne 

Method. — Melt the butter, add the flour, and, when well 
mixed, add the scalded milk gradually. Cook until it 
thickens, and then remove from the fire. Add the salt, 
cayenne, cheese, and the well-beaten yolks. Cool the mix- 
ture and add the well-beaten whites by cutting and folding. 
Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake 20 minutes 
in a slow oven. Serve at once. This serves 6 or 8 persons. 

(Basis for two, x /i rule.) 

2. Cottage Cheese 

Method. — Place thick, freshly-soured milk or butter- 
milk over a pan of hot water, not boiling. When the milk 
is warm and the curd separates from the whey, drain in a 
cheesecloth and dry. Put the curd into a bowl and add 
salt, pepper, and cream to taste. 

3. Cheese Straws (a)* 

Method. — Roll pastry \i inch thick, and sprinkle one- 
half with grated cheese. Fold, press edges firm'y together, 
fold again, pat and roll out M incn thick. Sprinkle with 
cheese and fold and roll out a second time. Cut into strips 
5 inches long and \i inch wide. Bake 8 minutes in a hot 
oven. Serve with salad. Cheese straws are good made 
out of left-over pie dough, and may be kept and freshened 

in the oven. 

4. Cheese Straws (b) 

Y 2 lb. grated cheese Vz lb. butter 

Yi lb. flour 

Method. — Cream the butter and stir into the flour, add 
the cheese and mix it in well. Add enough milk to soften 



100 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

it for kneading. Knead it, and roll thin — about Y% inch 

thick. Cut in even sticks, as in rule (a) and bake until a 

light brown. Serve with salads. This rule makes 75 to 

100. 

5. Cheese Balls* 

2 eggs 1 c. grated cheese 

A few fine bread crumbs 

Method. — Beat the whites of eggs to a stiff froth, add 
the cheese and the bread crumbs, and roll into small balls 
about 1 inch in diameter. Roll the balls in the yolks of the 
eggs, then in the fine crumbs, and fry in deep fat until a 
light brown color. Serve with salads. 

6. Welsh Rarebit 

1 lb. American cheese, grated 2 eggs 

1 tsp. butter A few grains cayenne 

1 c. cream or milk 1 tsp. mustard 

1 tsp. salt M tsp. soda 

Squares of toast or crackers 

Method. — Break the cheese in small pieces, or if hard 
grate it. Put it in a double boiler or chafing dish over a 
pan of hot water. Have the toast prepared and hot. Beat 
the egg well and add the seasoning, milk and soda to the 
egg. When the cheese is melted, stir in the egg mixture 
and the butter and cook 2 minutes or until it thickens a 
little. Serve on the hot toast or crisp crackers. If the 
cooking is not quite long enough the cheese is tough and 
stringy, and if cooked too long there is danger of curdling. 
Many use ale instead of cream. This serves 6 or 8 persons. 



7. Welsh Rarebit (without eggs) 
An inexpensive rarebit may be made without eggs 
by making a medium white sauce and adding grated 
cheese, seasoning of salt, cayenne and mustard. 



* Recipes 3 and 5 may not be applied until later. 



LESSON 13 



BEVERAGES 

A beverage is anything that we drink, either to quench 
thirst or for its refreshing and stimulating effects. Water 
is the best and most commonly used beverage. Other com- 
mon ones for the table are tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, and 
the juices of fruits. 

TEA 

Source. — Tea is made from the leaves of a shrub grown 
extensively in Japan, China, India, and Ceylon. Different 
qualities of strength and flavor in tea are due chiefly to the 
age of the leaves when picked and 
to the method of curing them. 
The young and tender leaves and 
buds yield teas of the highest 
quality. 

Kinds and Manufacture. — - 
There are two kinds of tea, green 
and black, with many varieties or 
brands of each. 

Black tea is made by first 
allowing the leaves to wilt rather 
slowly, after which they are rolled, 
allowed to ferment and turn black, 
and then dried in an oven. Ex- 
amples of black tea are Pekoe, 

r\ t i -T" i» i t-» ir Fig. 10. Tea plant, showing 

(JOlong and English Breakfast. parts to be plucked for the better 

^ . , ... grades of tea. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) 

Green tea is made in a similar 
way to black tea, except that the curing process is done 
more rapidly and the leaves are first wilted at a tempera- 

(101) 




102 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



ture high enough to kill the fermenting agents, thus pre- 
serving the green color. Hyson and Gunpowder are two 
common commercial varieties of green tea. 

Composition. — The most important substances in tea 
are theine, a stimulant; tannin, a harmful astringent; and 
a small amount of volatile oils, which give flavor and aroma. 
Black tea is milder than green tea. The theine is what we 
desire to extract from the leaves, and just a few minutes' 
steeping in water that has been brought to the boiling point 
is sufficient to dissolve out nearly all of it. Boiling or too 

long steeping draws out 
much of the tannin, which 
is undesirable. 

Food Value. — Tea itself 
has no food value. It is 
used for its mild stimulat- 
ing effect upon the ner- 
vous system and because 
it removes the sense of 
fatigue. Poor tea or tea 
taken in excess produces a 
hindering effect on diges- 

Fig. 11. A serviceable teakettle, with alcohol tion and, with many per- 

amp " sons, causes irritation and 

sleeplessness. Children require no stimulants, and their 
health is best promoted without tea. 

Adulterations. — Cheap grades of tea are likely to be 
adulterated with tea dust, etc., and injurious substances 
are sometimes used to imitate the color of green tea. 

COFFEE 

Source. — Coffee is made from the berries of a tropical 
evergreen grown principally in Brazil, Arabia, Java, Ceylon, 




BEVERAGES 103 

and East India. About three-fourths of the world's coffee 
comes from Brazil. Each berry has two seeds. 

Kinds. — Coffee grown in Arabia (Mocha coffee) is of 
fine quality, and is a small, dark-yellow, round berry. Java 
and East India coffees are pale yellow before roasting. Cey- 
lon and Brazilian coffees are a green gray. A combination 
of Mocha and Java makes an excellent coffee. 

Adulteration. — Coffee is frequently adulterated with 
roasted chicory, acorns, and parsnip roots. Good coffee 
does not sink in cold water, and does not quickly discolor 
cold water. 

Composition. — Coffee contains a stimulating substance 
called caffeine, which is the same thing as theine in tea. It 
also contains some essential oils and tannin. So much more 
of the injurious tannin in coffee is extracted by long boiling, 
and so little more of the good element, that coffee should 
not be allowed to boil longer than a few minutes. 

Food Value. — Coffee itself has no food value. It stimu- 
lates the nerves, brain, and heart, and the tannin has a 
hindering effect on digestion. Because it is usually made 
stronger, it has a greater stimulating effect than tea. For 
most persons, good coffee taken moderately at the close of 
a meal has a beneficial effect. Children should avoid coffee, 
as well as tea; they need no stimulants. 

Care of Coffee. — 1. Buy good, freshly roasted coffee, 
unground, and grind it as it is needed. 

2. Keep it in an air-tight jar. 

3. Never let coffee stand in the coffeepot between 
meals. 

4. Use a clean, enamel coffeepot, and scald out after 
using. 

5. Do not use soap in washing out the coffeepot. 



104 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 



Source. — Cocoa and chocolate are products from the 
seeds of the cacao plant, which is grown chiefly in the trop- 
ical countries of America. 

Manufacture. — The cacao bean-pod is from 7 to 10 
inches long and 3 or 4 inches in diameter. Each pod con- 
tains twenty to forty seeds. They are fermented in heaps 
on the ground for several days, to develop their flavor; then 
the beans are dried and roasted, the covering is removed, 
and they are sold as ''cocoa nibs." Some of the fat is 
extracted from the cocoa nibs, and the rest of the bean is 
pulverized and mixed with sugar and a little starch. This 
is sold as cocoa. 

Chocolate has not as much of the fat removed. Some is 
sweetened and flavored, and some is sold as bitter chocolate. 
The fat obtained from the cocoa bean is sold as cocoa butter, 
and is used for medicinal and other purposes. 

Composition. — The cocoa bean contains nearly 50 per 
cent fat and 10 to 15 per cent starch, with a little protein. 
It contains a substance called theobromine, which is similar 
to caffeine, but is much milder. 

Food Value. — The fat and protein in cocoa and choco- 
late combined with the milk used in the preparations make 
them both nutritious foods. Chocolate is richer in fat and is 
harder to digest than cocoa. Cocoa makes a nourishing 
drink for children and invalids. Both have a slightly stim- 
ulating effect on the body. 

APPLICATION 

1. Tea 
3 tsp. tea 2 c. water 

Method. — Put the tea into a scalded earthen or china 
teapot and pour the freshly boiled water over it. Moder- 



BEVERAGES 105 

ately hard water is best. Cover and allow to steep 3 to 5 
minutes. Serve with sugar and cream if desired, or with 
sugar, a clove, and a thin slice of lemon. Avoid all second 
brews, which contain more of the harmful tannin. Tea 
should always be freshly made and should never be boiled. 
For iced tea, make tea, strain, and set on ice 3 or 4 hours. 
Serve with broken ice and a slice of lemon in each glass. 

2. Coffee (a) 

Yz c. ground coffee Yi c. cold water 

2 eggshells (crumbled) or ^ 3H c. boiling water 
egg white 

Method. — Mix coffee, egg white or shells, and \i cup of 
cold water thoroughly. Add boiling water. Boil coffee 3 
minutes and move coffeepot to back of the stove. Pour a 
little of the coffee into a cup to free spout from grounds; 
pour it back into the coffeepot and add J4 cup cold water. 
Let it stand for 10 minutes where it will keep hot but not 
boil. Serve with sugar and cream, if preferred, which are 
put into the hot cup before the coffee is poured in. 

Coffee (b) 
Y c ground coffee 4 c. cold water 

2 eggshells (crumbled) or %> egg 

Method. — Mix coffee, egg, and cold water. Allow it to 
come to a boil and boil for 1 minute. Pour a little cold 
water into the spout to settle coffee. Allow it to stand in a 
warm place for 10 minutes. Strain and serve in usual way. 

3. Filtered Coffee 
y 2 c. coffee 4 c. boiling water 

Method. — Put finely ground coffee into upper part or 
strainer in the top of a coffeepot, and pour the boiling 
water slowly upon it. Allow the water to filter slowly 
through, then pour it out, and let filter through again. The 
coffeepot must be kept hot while coffee is being made, but 



106 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

filtered coffee must never be boiled. This produces a clear, 

bright coffee and requires about 5 minutes for making. 

Serve at once, or the bright flavor will be lost. (Makes 4 

cups of coffee.) 

4. Percolated Coffee 

Method. — Use same proportion of coffee as for Filtered 
Coffee. Place the coffee in the strainer in the upper part of 
the pot and let the water boil up through the tube, percolat- 
ing through the coffee into the lower part, where it is sent 
boiling to the tube again. The glass top renders it easy to 
see when the coffee is strong enough. The flame can be 
turned low so as to keep the coffee hot but not boiling. 

5. After-Dinner Coffee 

Method. — Allow 2 tablespoonfuls finely ground coffee to 
each large coffee cup of freshly boiled water. Filter accord- 
ing to directions given. 

6. Chocolate 

1 sq. Baker's chocolate Pinch of salt 

2 tbsp. sugar 1 qt. hot milk 

2 tbsp. hot water 

Method. — Put chocolate, sugar, salt, and 2 tablespoon- 
fuls of hot water in a pan. Cook until smooth, stirring 
constantly, add gradually the hot milk. Boil for several 
minutes. Serve with whipped cream or a marshmallow on 
the top of each cup. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }<£ rule.) 

7. Cocoa 
1 pt. scalded milk 2 tbsp. cocoa 

1 pt. boiling water 2 to 4 tbsp. sugar 

Method. — Mix cocoa and sugar in a saucepan, stir in the 
water gradually, and boil 5 minutes. Add the milk, and 
cook 5 minutes longer or until smooth. 

Note. — If this is to stand, beat well to prevent the albu- 
minous skin from forming. 



BEVERAGES 107 

8. Lemonade 

1 lemon (juice) x /i c. sugar 

1 pt. water 2 thin slices of lemon 

Method. — Wash the lemon, cut thin slices from the 
center, and remove the seeds. Squeeze the juice into a 
bowl, add the sugar, water, and cracked ice. Serve very 
cold with a slice of lemon for each glass. 

Note. — Variations l>1 this lemonade may be made by 
adding fruit juices or mineral water. 



LESSON 14 

QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS 

Quick breads are mixtures of flour and liquid, together 
with some sugar, salt, shortening, and a leavening agent. 
They are so named to distinguish them from the yeast 
breads, which require a longer time in making. 

Quick-bread mixtures are either batters or doughs, 
depending upon the amount of liquid used. 

Batters are mixtures that are beaten. There are two 
kinds : — 

1. Pour batters, which are in the proportion of 1 meas- 
ure of liquid to 1 of flour. 

2. Drop batters, which are in the proportion of 1 
measure of liquid to 2 of flour. 

Dough is a mixture that is kneaded. There are two 
kinds : — 

1. Soft dough, in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid 
to 3 of flour. 

2. Stiff dough, in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid 
to 4 or more of flour. 

The proportions vary to some extent according to the 
flour used. 

Materials for Quick Breads. — The liquids used are milk, 
water, or molasses. Eggs are regarded as so much liquid. 
The fats used are butter, lard, suet, or beef drippings. This 
fat is spoken of as shortening, as it makes the mixtures 
more tender. The flour used is wheat flour or meal (corn, 
rye, or graham). 

Leavening Agents. — Flour mixtures when baked would 
be very hard and indigestible if no leavening agent were 

(108) 



QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS 109 

used. Air, steam, and carbon dioxide gas are the agents 
used for this purpose. 

Air is introduced into flour mixtures (1) by adding eggs 
and then beating the mixture, or (2) by beating the 
eggs first and adding to the mixture. Can you name a case 
where air was used to make a mixture light? 

Steam. — The liquid in a heated mixture is converted 
into steam and is expanded many times. This puffs up the 
mixture. The heat of the oven hardens the mixture and 
holds the steam in. Mixtures without flour fall when cool, 
as steam changes back to water when cold. 

Carbon dioxide gas is produced in mixtures to lighten 
them, by the addition of — 

1. Soda and an acid (cream of tartar, sour milk, or 
molasses). Soda and cream of tartar riake baking powder. 

2. Yeast, as in bread making. 
Directions for Mixing Quick Breads. — 

1. Sift and mix the dry materials. 

2. Add the wet materials to the dry. 

3. Beat eggs separately and add to the mixture, and 
beat thoroughly. 

4. Rub or cut shortening in cold; or melt and add to 
the mixture. 

5. Use a large mixing spoon. 

6. Mix quickly and put into the oven to bake quickly. 
Baking. — Quick breads should be baked as soon as 

mixed, in order to hold all the leavening material (air, 
steam, and gas) in the mixture. This is especially neces- 
sary with thin batters, also those raised by air or those 
raised by soda and liquid acids (sour milk and molasses). 
The gas in the latter case is produced more readily in the 
presence of moisture. 



110 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Temperature of Oven. — Different mixtures require differ- 
er t temperatures, and most recipes designate the tempera- 
ti re of the oven. In order to ascertain the temperature, 
some simple tests similar to the following are used: — 

1. A moderate oven turns a piece of white paper golden 
f »rown in 5 minutes. 

2. A hot oven turns a piece of white paper dark brown 
in 5 minutes. 

Pans. — Grease pans thoroughly. Use a small brush 
or a piece of paper for greasing. 

The time for baking is divided into quarters, as follows: — 

1. Mixture rises. 

2. Mixture continues to rise, and browns slightly. 

3. Mixture finishes rising and browns all over. 

4. Mixture finishes baking and shrinks from the pan. 

Time Guide for Baking Quick Breads (with gas). — 

Pop-overs 30 min. 

Biscuits (baking powder) 10 to 20 min. 

Corn bread (thin) 15 to 20 min. 

Corn bread (thick) 30 to 40 min. 

Muffins (baking powder) 20 to 25 min. 

Gingerbread 30 to 45 min. 

APPLICATION 

1. Pop-overs (thin batter) 

1 c. flour 14 tsp. salt 

1 c. milk 2 eggs 

Method. — Put the flour in a bowl, make a well in the 

center, and drop in the salt. Add the milk gradually, and 

stir well. When smooth add the unbeaten eggs and beat 

hard until light. Bake in hissing hot muffin pans in a hot 

oven 45 minutes. Serve hot. (Makes 8 pop-overs.) 
{Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 



QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS 111 

2. Sour Milk Griddle Cakes 

2 c. flour 1 egg 

1 tsp. soda Y 2 tsp. salt 

2 c. sour milk 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; add the 
sour milk and egg well beaten. Bake by spoonfuls on a 
hot, greased griddle. (Beat the batter well before pouring 
a fresh batch of cakes on the griddle.) When puffed full 
of bubbles and cooked on the edges, turn and cook on the 
other side. Grease pan, and repeat. If large bubbles 
form at once on the top of the cakes, the griddle is too hot. 
If the top of the cake stiffens before the under side is 
cooked, the griddle is not hot enough. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }4 ride.) 

3. Griddle Cakes (baking powder, sweet milk) 

3 c. flour \i c. sugar 

1 ^ tbsp. baking powder 2 c. milk 

1 tsp. salt 1 egg 

2 tbsp. melted butter 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; beat egg, 
add milk, and then add the wet mixture to the dry. Beat 
thoroughly and add the butter. Cook the same as Sour 
Milk Griddle Cakes. Begin cooking cakes at once or 
more baking powder will be required. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) 

4. Bread Griddle Cakes 
\\ic. fine stale bread crumbs 2 tbsp. butter 
\ l /2 c. scalded milk 4 tsp. baking powder 

2 eggs y 2 c flour 

% tsp. salt 

Method. — Add the milk and butter to the crumbs, and 
soak until crumbs are soft; add eggs well beaten, then the 
flour, salt, and baking powder mixed and sifted Cook the 
same as other griddle cakes. 

(Basis So* 2 girls. Vi rule.) 



112 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

6. Waffles 

1 c. milk 14 c melted butter 

2 eggs 2 sc. tsp. baking powder 

Pinch of salt Flour to make soft batter (about 

Method. — Beat flour and milk, add butter, and beat. 
Add the well-beaten yolks and beat again; then add baking 
powder and a little salt and beat very hard for a few minutes. 
Fold in the well-beaten whites lightly. Have iron very hot; 
bake, and serve at once. 

6. Brown Sugar Syrup 

FOR WAFFLES AND CAKES— 
1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. butter 

l /i c. water % tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Boil the sugar and water 5 minutes, then add 
the butter and vanilla and serve hot or cold. 



LESSON 15 

QUICK BREADS— BAKING POWDER 

Composition. — Baking powder is made up of substances 
that react and form carbon dioxide gas in the presence of 
heat and moisture. It contains one part of baking soda 
(saleratus) and two parts of an acid (cream of tartar, phos- 
phate, or alum) with a little starch to keep it dry. Cream 
of tartar is an acid substance obtained from the argols or 
crystals formed on the- inside of wine casks. Soda is an 
alkaline product made from common salt and contains a 
carbonate. 

Experiments to show the action of soda and an acid : — 

1. Mix J4 tsp. of soda and Y2 tsp. of cream of tartar. 
What happens? 

2. Add yi cup of cold water to the mixture. What 
happens? 

3. Add }/i cup of boiling water to a similar mixture of 
soda and cream of tartar. Compare the results with 
Experiments 1 and 2. 

Action of Baking Powder. — Carbon dioxide gas is pro- 
duced rapidly by the action of baking powder in the pres- 
ence of a liquid and heat. As the bubbles of gas are 
formed and expand they lift up the mixture and make it 
light. Baking must be accomplished while the bubbles 
are forming if best results are to be obtained. If too hot 
an oven is used, a crust is formed before all the gas is liber- 
ated and as a result the bread is heavy. Quick breads 
baked in too hot an oven often crack open on the top. 

If too cool an oven is used the gas forms and passes 
off before enough heat is present to produce a crust. 

—8 (113) 



114 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Mixtures containing eggs do not require as hot an oven 
since albumin is coagulated at a moderate temperature. 

Kinds of Baking Powder. — Baking powders are classed 
according to the acid used; as (1) cream of tartar, (2) 
tartaric acid, (3) phosphate, and (4) alum, baking powders. 



r~\ 
















^ttM^ttB^ 












~ 








; 


. . 








■ 

v. 


\ 


. 


| 1 


*';-•■. 








^IShI 


|| .£ 








^^ 









Fig. 12. Muffina. 

The first three named are regarded as more healthful than 
alum powders, since they leave in the bread no harmful 
residues which are the objection to baking powders contain- 
ing alum. 

The proportion of baking powder to use with flour u 
2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cup of flour. If egg* 
are used in a mixture, use less baking powder. Why 1 * 

APPLICATION 

1. Muffins (plain egg) 

2 c. flour l A tsp. salt 

3 tsp. baking powder 1 egg 

4 tbsp. sugar 4 tbsp. melted butter 

1 c. milk 



QUICK BREADS— BAKING POWDER 115 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, separate 
the egg, beat the yolk slightly and the white to a stiff 
froth. Add the milk, beaten yolk, and melted butter to 
the dry ingredients. Fold in the stiffly-beaten whites. 
Bake in buttered muffin pans 25 minutes. 

(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 

2. Blueberry Muffins 

Add to the preceding plain-egg recipe: — ■ 

1 c. blueberries }/% c. sugar 

Method. — Mix the same as the plain-egg muffins. For 
blueberry muffins use a little less milk. 

(Basis for 2 girls, x /± rule.) 

3. Rice Muffins 

234 c. flour 1 c. milk 

% c. hot cooked rice 1 egg 

5 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. melted butter 

3 tbsp. sugar y 2 tsp. salt 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; add J^ the 
milk and the well-beaten egg. Mix the remainder of the 
milk with the rice and add to the first mixture, beating 
thoroughly. Then add the melted butter and bake in 
buttered muffin tins. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 

4. Invalid Muffins 

1 c. flour y 2 c. milk 

1 tsp. baking powder 2 eggs (whites) 

Y2 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. melted butter 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the 
milk gradually, the eggs well beaten, and lastly the melted 
butter. Bake in a moderate oven in buttered gem pans. 
After baking, let stand in the oven, with door open, until 
the crust is dry and crisp. Serve hot or cold. 



116 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

5. Date Muffins 

}?£ c. butter % c. milk 

34 c. sugar 2 c. flour 

Y /i tsp. salt }/i lb. dates 

1 egg 4 tsp. baking powder 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually 
and the dates chopped fine. Cream all together, add the 
beaten egg, then half of the milk, and half of the flour. 
Beat thoroughly. Add the remainder of the milk and the 
flour, beating hard. Sift the baking powder over the top 
and carefully fold it into the mixture. Bake in hot greased 
muffin pans for 20 minutes. 

6. Oatmeal Muffins 

(Conservation Recipe) 

\ l /2 c. milk 2 c. rolled oats 

1 tbsp. syrup 1 c. wheat flour 

1 egg 1 tbsp. oil 

Y± tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder 

Method. — Pour the hot milk over the rolled oats, let 
stand half an hour. Add the well-beaten egg, syrup, and 
oil. Then add the dry materials sifted together. Beat 
hard, turn into well-greased muffin pans and bake in a 
moderate oven for J/£ hour. 

7. Potato Muffins 
(Conservation Recipe) 
1 c. mashed potatoes 1 c. milk 
1 c. cornmeal 2 tbsp. oil 

Yl tsp. salt 1 egg 

4 tsp. baking powder 1 tbsp. sugar 

Method. — Mix the dry material together. Beat the egg 
well, add the milk and add the wet mixture to the dry. 
Then add the oil and beat hard. Turn into well-greased 
muffin pans and bake in a moderate oven twenty-five to 
thirtv minutes. 



LESSON 16 

QUICK BREADS— CORN, THICK BATTERS 

Review leavening agents (Lesson 14). 

CORN 

Source. — Corn is a native of America, and ranks first 
in importance of all crops raised in this country. 

Kinds. — There are three kinds of corn of interest in cook- 
ery: (1) dent (field) corn, (2) sweet corn, and (3) pop corn. 

Dent corn is large and coarse and is used for making 
cornmeal, cornstarch, corn sirup, and hominy. Name 
other uses. 

Sweet corn is finer grained and contains sugar. It is 
used as a table vegetable and is served both on the ear and 
off the ear. 

The Golden Bantam variety of sweet corn has very 
yellow ears, and is sweeter and more tender than any other 
variety. 

Pop corn has small, sharp, hard kernels. This corn 
when exposed to the heat bursts open, and the inside of 
the kernel, which is composed mainly of starch, swells into 
a mass of fluffy white. It is served hot and fresh with salt 
and butter, or with a sirup and made in the form of balls. 
It may also be used as a garnish around red apples filled 
with apple salad. 

Composition. — Corn is similar in structure and com- 
position to wheat, with the exception of the protein. Corn 
contains more fat than wheat and the protein has not the 
tenacious, elastic properties that gluten of wheat has. 
It cannot be baked into a light, porous loaf. Cornmeal is 
very heavy when used alone, and most recipes call for 

(117) 



118 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



the addition of white flour, as the gluten in the flour helps 
to hold the air in the mixture. Corn contains a small 
quantity of cellulose compared with other grains. 
Composition of Corn Foods 



Corn (whole) 
Hulled corn. . 

Hominy 

Pop corn 
Cornmeal . . . 



Protein 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Minerals 


10.5 


5.4 


71.7 


1.5 


2.3 


.9 


22.2 


.5 


8.6 


.6 


79.6 


.3 


10.7 


5.0 


78.7 


1.3 


8.9 


2.2 


75.1 


.9 



Water 



10.9 
74.1 
10.9 
4.3 
12.9 



CORN PRODUCTS 



Hominy is the corn kernel with the skin removed and 
may be either whole or cracked into coarse pieces. The 
skin was formerly removed by soaking in strong lye, but 
this is now done by machinery. 

Cornmeal is made in two grades. A rather coarse meal 
is made by grinding the whole kernel and removing only 
the coarsest bran. This meal is darker in color than the fine 
grade and does not keep well in summer, owing to the 
large amount of fat in the germ. A fancy grade is made by 
removing both the skin and the germ from the kernel and 
grinding the remainder quite fine. 

Cornstarch is the pure starch of the corn grain, made by 
washing the flour. Potatoes are now coming to be used 
more for this purpose. 

Glucose, or corn sirup, is made by boiling corn starch 
with dilute acid. It is about three-fifths as sweet as cane 
sugar, and is wholesome for table use and for candies. 

Corn Oil, a more recent product, is the pure vegetable 
oil from the heart of the corn. It is purified and is an 
excellent fat substitute for animal fat in all kinds of cook- 
ing. 



QUICK BREADS— THICK BATTERS 119 

Food Value of Corn. — Corn, being rich in fat and starch, 
furnishes much heat and energy to the body. It is deficient 
in protein and salts, which necessitates its being used with 
foods containing tissue-building materials. 

Cornmeal cooked in the form of mush, hoe-cake, johnny- 
cake, and brown bread is a very popular dish in the South 
and in some European countries. Such food is easily 
masticated and digested, may be quickly prepared, is cheap, 
nutritious, and may well be used more extensively. 

APPLICATION 

1. Cornmeal Muffins 

Y2 c. cornmeal 1 tbsp. melted butter 

1 c. flour Yi tsp. salt 

3 tsp. baking powder % c. milk 
1 tbsp. sugar 1 egg 

Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients, add the milk 

gradually, then the egg well beaten, and the melted butter. 

Bake in a hot oven in buttered gem pans for 25 minutes. 
(Basis for 2 girls,. Yi rule.) 

2. Graham Muffins 

1 c. graham flour 1 c. milk 

\i c. flour 1 egg 

x /i c. sugar 1 tbsp. melted butter 

1 tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder 

Method. — Same as for Cornmeal Muffins. 

3. Corn Bread 
1 c. cornmeal Y2 tsp. salt 

1 c. flour 1 c. milk 

Y c sugar 2 eggs 

4 tsp. baking powder 4 tbsp. melted butter 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk, 
then the well-beaten egg, and lastly the melted butter. 
Beat thoroughly. Bake for 25 minutes in a shallow but- 
tered pan in a moderate oven. 

(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.) 



120 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

4. Muffins (without eggs) 

1 c. buttermilk 1 tbsp. sour cream 
Yi tsp. soda 2 c. flour 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients together. 
Then gradually add the wet mixture to the dry. Beat 
hard and bake in hot muffin pans in a moderate oven for 
20 minutes. 

5. Southern Spoon Bread 

2 c. milk y% tsp. salt 
1 c. corn meal 4 eggs 

Method. — Scald the milk, and slowly stir in the corn- 
meal, add the salt and let boil 2 or 3 minutes. Remove 
from the fire, add the beaten egg yolks, beat well, then care- 
fully fold in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs. Pour into 
a buttered baking dish and bake in a moderate oven }/£ 
hour. Serve hot from the baking dish at the table with 
a large spoon. 

6. Cereal Muffins 
(Conservation Recipe) 
1 c. barley flour l^c. milk 

1 c. cornmeal 1 egg 

1 c. wheat flour 1 tbsp. corn oil 

4 tsp. baking powder 1 tbsp. corn syrup or molasses 

1 tsp. salt 

Method. — Sift the dry ingredients together, add the wet, 
beat hard and bake in a moderate oven x /i hour in well- 
greased muffin pans. 



LESSON 17 

QUICK BREADS— SODA 

Quick breads are often made light by the use of soda 
with material containing acid, like sour milk or molasses. 
The acid and soda form carbon dioxide gas throughout the 
mixture, which causes it to rise. The acid material being 
liquid, the action is quicker than when baking powder is 
used, and mixtures raised in this way must be prepared 
quickly and put in a hot oven at once. 

Experiments to produce carbon dioxide gas with soda 
and a liquid acid: — 

1. Put J4 tsp. of soda in Y2 c. of sour milk. 

2. Heat the mixture. Watch it. 

The action in the case of soda gives the same results a9 
baking powder, and makes mixtures light. 
Proportion of soda with acid material: — ■ 
To 1 c. thick sour milk use 3^ tsp. of soda. 
To 1 c. of molasses use 1 tsp. of soda. 

APPLICATION 
1. Soft Molasses Gingerbread 
1 c. molasses 2 hp. c. flour 

\i c. melted butter 2 tsp. ginger 

XYi tsp. soda Y2 tsp. salt 

1 c. sour milk Few drops of vanilla 

Method. — Put the soda into the sour milk, then add to 
the molasses. Sift dry materials together and add the wet 
to the dry; beat vigorously. Bake 25 minutes in buttered 
muffin pans, having pans % filled with the mixture. 

(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 

Note. — A few floured raisins might be added to this 
recipe. 

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122 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

2. Hot Water Gingerbread 

1 c. molasses 13^ tsp. ginger 
}/£ c. boiling water 1 tsp. soda 
234 c flour l A tsp. salt 

4 tbsp. melted butter 

Method. — Add the boiling water to the molasses. Mix 
and sift the dry ingredients and add the wet mixture to the 
dry; then add the melted butter; beat hard. Pour in 
buttered pan or muffin tins, and bake in a moderate oven 
for 25 minutes. 

}/± cup of floured raisins may be added to make a 

variety. 

3. Brown Nut Bread 

2 c. graham flour }/2 c. molasses 

1 c. white flour % c. sugar 

2 c. sour milk 1 /l c. raisins 
2 tsp. soda H c - nu ts 

1 tsp. salt 

Method. — Mix the dry materials together; cut and flour 
the raisins and the nuts or add them to the dry materials. 
Add the sour milk to the molasses, and then add the wet 
materials to the dry. Grease one-pound baking powder 
cans thoroughly and pour in the mixture, cover, and let 
stand an hour; then bake 45 minutes in a hot oven. This 
makes 3 loaves. Fill cans only % full, for the mixture 
rises before baking. 



LESSON 18 

QUICK BREADS— FLOUR, SOFT DOUGH 

FLOUR 

Flour is made from cereals — wheat, oats, barley, rye, 
corn, buckwheat and rice. 

Kinds of Wheat Flour. — (1) Graham flour, (2) whole- 
wheat flour, (3) bread flour, (4) pastry flour. Turn to les- 
son 6, on wheat. Notice the structure of wheat, also note 
the difference between spring and winter wheats. 

Graham flour is made by grinding the entire grain of 
spring wheat, including the outer bran coverings. 

Whole-wheat flour is made by grinding the whole grains 
of spring wheat, with the exception of the two outer and 
coarser bran coats. 

Bread flour is made by grinding the remainder of the 
grain of spring wheat after the bran coats and much of the 
germ are removed. 

Pastry flour is made from the starchy part of the grain 
of winter wheat. The outer bran coats and the germ are 
not used. 

i Manufacture of Flour. — Wheat is taken into the mill 
and carefully washed to remove all dust. It is soaked to 
soften it some, then passed between either millstones or 
rollers, which grind the grain. There are two chief methods 
of breaking or grinding the grain, but that used in the best 
mills for high-grade flour is called roller milling. The wheat 
may pass through as many as eight different sets of rollers, 
each crushing or grinding finer than the preceding. After 
each grinding, the fine flour is sifted, or bolted, through silk 
cloth of different degrees of fineness. Many by-products* 

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124 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

as, bran, middlings, shorts, etc., are produced. Graham and 
whole-wheat flour are usually ground between millstones, 
in one operation. The flour is finally packed into barrels 
and sacks, ready for the market. A barrel of flour weighs 
196 pounds, and sacks may be had containing 24^, 49, 
and 98 pounds. 

Grades of Flour. — There are many grades of flour made 
in every mill. The grade depends upon the quality of the 
wheat and upon the sorting in the milling process. Inferior 
flour is sometimes sold as best flour, and we pay the price of 
the best. We must be able to detect poor flour and to 
demand a grade of flour worth the price we pay. 

Composition of a bread flour is as follows: — 

Protein Carbohydrates Fat Mineral matter Water 

11.3% 74.6% 1.1% .5% 12.5% 

How to Tell Good Flour — 

1. In color it is white with a yellowish tinge. 

2. It has a gritty feeling, not being too smooth and 
powdery. 

3. It absorbs water readily. 

4. It falls loosely apart after being squeezed in the 
hand, indicating that it does not contain too much moisture. 

5. Good bread flour makes an elastic dough. 

Experiments to determine the presence of starch and 
gluten: — 

1. Test flour with iodine for starch. 

2. Make a cup of flour into a stiff dough with a little 
cold water. Knead in a strainer set in a bowl of water for 
a few minutes. What washes away? What is the nature 
of the substance that is left? 

3. Compare bread flour and pastry flour. 



QUICK BREADS— SOFT DOUGH 



IK 



APPLICATION 

Demonstrate Baking Powder Biscuit: — (a) Method of 

cutting in shortening, (b) Method of handling dough on 

a board. 

1. Baking Powder Biscuit 
2 c. flour 4 tsp. baking powder 

2 tbsp. shortening 1 tsp. salt 

% c. milk 

Method. — Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, and salt. 
Cut in the shortening, using two knives, or rub in with the 




Fig. 13. Baking powder biscuits. 

tips of the fingers. Add the milk gradually, mixing with a 
knife, to make a soft dough. Transfer to a well-floured 
board, and pat or roll out to one inch thickness. Handle as 
lightly and quickly as possible. Cut with a biscuit cutter, 
first dipped in flour. Place close together on a greased 
pan, and bake in a hot oven 10 to 15 minutes. 
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 

2. Emergency Biscuit 
2 c. flour 4 tbsp. butter 

% c. milk 4 tsp. baking powder 

Yi tsp. salt 



126 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients; chop in butter 
with knives; then add the milk, and do not stir more than 
necessary. Bake in buttered gem pans. 

(Basis for 2 girls, Y /± rule, with x /i c. milk.) 

3. Nut Bread 

4 c. flour 1 c. chopped nuts 

1 tsp. salt 2 c. milk 

4 hp. tsp. baking powder y% c. sugar 
1 egg 

Method. — Sift dry ingredients and add nuts. Beat the 
egg, add the milk, and stir wet mixture into dry. Put 
in well-greased bread tins. Let stand about 20 minutes to 
rise. Bake J^ hour in a moderate oven. This makes 2 
loaves. 

4. Fruit Roll 

Baking Powder Biscuit Rule Yi c. chopped raisins and nuts 

Method. — Prepare the biscuit dough and pat or roll out 
on a slightly floured board to the thickness of Yi inch. 
Sprinkle with finely cut raisins and nuts and a little sugar. 
Begin at one end and roll up. Cut into pieces one inch 
thick and bake on pans in a hot oven about 20 minutes. 
Serve hot for luncheon or tea. 

5. Barley Biscuit 
(Conservation Recipe) 

3 c. barley flour 6 tbsp. baking powder 

4 tbsp. fat 1 tsp. salt 

1 c. milk 

Method. — Same as for any baking powder biscuit. 



LESSON 19 

VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH 

Baking powder biscuit dough is made richer and sweeter 
when used for desserts— shortcakes and dumplings— but 
the method of preparation is very much the same as for 

biscuits. 

APPLICATION 

1. Shortcake, Peach 
2 c. flour -i tsp. baking powder 

4 tbsp. shortening (butter or M tsp. salt 
lard) % c. milk 

1 tsp. sugar 

Method— Mix and sift the dry ingredients, cut in the 
shortening as for baking powder biscuit. Add enough milk 




Fig. 14. Individual peach shortcakes. 

gradually until the mass adheres together. Turn out on a 
slightly floured board and pat out to \i inch in thickness. 
Cut in size to fit tins and put one piece on top of the otner, 
with butter between. (Individual shortcakes may be made 
by cutting with a cutter and placing one piece on top of the 

(127) 



U8 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

other.) Bake in a hot oven for 20 minutes; then split open 
ready for fruit. 

To prepare peaches, peel them, cut in small slices, and 
sprinkle with sugar. Have the fruit warm, place some on 
the lower half, put other half of cake on top, and put fruit 
over the whole. Serve with cream or whipped cream. 

(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 

2. Berry Shortcake 

Method. — Make shortcake same as for peach shortcake. 
Sweeten berries to taste, and warm. Crush slightly and 
put between and on top of the shortcake. 



LESSON 20 

VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH 

(Continued) 

Review batters and doughs. Review baking powder. 

APPLICATION 

1. Apple Dumplings 

1 c. flour 2 tbsp. shortening 

2 tsp. baking powder }/$ c. water or milk 
34 tsp. salt 4 apples 

V 2 c. sugar 

Method. — Mix and sift flour, baking powder, and salt. 
Cut in the shortening with knives, add the liquid, mixing 
to a soft dough. Roll on a well-floured board to 34 inch 
thickness. Wipe, pare, and cut apples in halves. Cut 
dough in 4- or 5-inch squares. Place half an apple in 
center of square, and sprinkle with sugar and cinnamon. 
Moisten edge of dough; bring the four corners together 
around the apple. Pierce with a fork to allow steam to 
escape. Bake on a greased tin in a moderate oven until 
soft, — about 25 minutes. Serve warm with cream or any 
pudding sauce. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 

2. Dutch Apple Cake 

2 c. flour 1 egg 

Yl tsp. salt % c. milk 

3 tsp. baking powder 2 sour apples 
\i c. butter 2 tbsp. sugar 

34 tsp. cinnamon 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients except sugar 
and cinnamon, cut or rub in the butter, add the milk 
and beaten egg. Spread 3^ i ncn thick on a shallow pan. 

—9 (129) 



130 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Pare and cut the apples in sections lengthwise and set in 
rows on the dough with the sharp edges pressed lightly into 
the dough. Sprinkle the top with sugar and cinnamon. 
Bake in a hot oven 25 or 30 minutes. Serve hot with lemon 
or hard sauce. 

3. Vanilla Sauce 

}4 sc« c. of sugar 1 c. boiling water 

1 tbsp. corn starch or 2 of flour 1 tsp. vanilla 

1 tsp. butter 

Method. — Mix sugar and corn starch in a sauce pan. 
Pour on the boiling water, stirring rapidly. Boil and stir 
until clear, add butter and vanilla. Serve hot or cold. 

4. Lemon Sauce 

3^ c. sugar 2 tbsp. butter 

1 c. boiling water 1^ tbsp. lemon juice 

1 tbsp. corn starch Few gratings nutmeg 

Pinch of salt 

Method. — Mix the sugar and corn starch, add the water 
gradually, stir constantly. Boil 5 minutes, remove from 
fire, add the butter, lemon juice, and nutmeg. Serve hot. 

(Housekeepers make full rule.) 

5. Hard Sauce 
}i c. butter ]4 tsp. lemon juice 

1 c. powdered sugar % tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually 
and the flavoring. Set away to get cold. Serve cold. 



LESSON 21 

STEAMED MIXTURES 

General Directions for Steaming Mixtures. — 1. Use a 
tin mold or can with a tight-fitting cover. 

2. Grease the inside of the mold and the cover thor- 
oughly. 

3. Fill cans only % full. 

4. Tie covers on securely. 

5. Set mold on a rack in a kettle containing enough 
boiling water to come half way up on the mold. Why is a 
rack necessary? Or set mold in a steamer over boiling 
water. 

6. Cover the kettle or steamer tightly. 

7. Keep water boiling all the time, and add more water 
as needed. 

8. Set the mold in the oven for a few minutes to dry off 
after steaming is done. * 

Time for steaming mixtures : 

The time for steaming depends on the nature of the 
mixture to be steamed and the kind of a mold used. 

Mixtures which contain much fruit and suet require 
longer time for steaming than plain mixtures. Tin con- 
ducts the heat more readily than granite or porcelain and 
mixtures require less time for steaming in tin molds than in 
heavy molds. 

STEAMED MIXTURES 

Molds Mixtures 

Individual, tin Plain 

Pound, tin Plain 

Pound, tin Fruit 

Larger than 1 pound Plain 

Larger than 1 pound Fruit 

(131) 



'ime for Steaming 


3^-1 houi 


2-3 hours 


3-4 hours 


3-4 hours 


4-5 hours 



132 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

APPLICATION 

1. Steamed Boston Brown Bread 

1 c. rye flour % tbsp. soda 

1 c. cornmeal 1 tsp. salt 

1 c. whole wheat % c. molasses 

2 c. sour milk or l^c. water 

Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients; add molasses 
and liquid ; stir until well mixed ; turn into a well-buttered 
mold and steam 3J^ hours. Butter the cover before placing 
it on the mold. Fill mold % full. Baking-powder tins 
may be used for molds. Steam according to directions. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }/$ rule.) 

2. Quick Individual Puddings 

1 c. flour yi tsp. salt 

2 tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. sugar 
^2 c. milk Fruit 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, and add the 
milk gradually to the dry materials. Grease each indivi- 
dual mold or cup thoroughly. Put Y% c - of fruit in the bot- 
tom of each cup and add batter to fill the cup. Set cup in 
a steamer over a kettle of boiling water. Cover the steamer 
tightly and steam for 30 minutes. Turn the pudding out 
of the cup and serve hot with cream and sugar. Any cooked 
fruit, jam, jelly, or fresh berries may be used. 



LESSON 22 

YEAST— BREAD 

YEAST 

Yeast is a mass of very tiny plants, each plant consisting 
of a single cell. 

Source. — Wild yeast is present in the air and on the 
skins of grapes. Desirable varieties are cultivated. 

Growth. — Yeast plants grow by budding, each bud 
breaks away from the parent cell and in turn forms new 
Duds. Under favorable conditions the growth is so rapid 
that-' often many buds are formed on one cell at one time, 
and these in turn are budded before they separate from the 
parent cell. Under certain conditions yeast forms spores, 
which grow when they lodge in a favorable place. 

Conditions favorable to growth are: (1) Warmth (77° to 
95° F. is best). (2) Moisture. (3) Food (starch and 
sugar) . 

Freezing (32° F.) checks the growth. Hot water, or a 
temperature above 130° F., kills yeast. 

Forms.— (1) Liquid, (2) dry, (3) compressed. 

Liquid yeast is not as much used now as in earlier times. 
It is made from potatoes, hops, sugar, and water. A few 
yeast plants are added, which feed upon the mixture and 
multiply very rapidly until the mixture is alive with them. 
A small amount of this mixture added to dough produces 
the necessary leaven. 

Dry yeast is a market form of yeast. The yeast plants 
are skimmed from vats of wort, a dilute sugar solution, and 
are washed, dried, and mixed with starch to keep dry. 
Then the mass is pressed into sheets which are cut into 
small squares and put in packages for the market. Dry 

U33) 



134 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 






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&k 






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fl 



§ 



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*&> 






V? 






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v7 









yeast will keep for a long time and will start to grow only 
when proper food, heat, and moisture are present again. 
This form of yeast is convenient for any one living a long 
distance from market. 

Compressed yeast is prepared in the same manner as dry 
yeast, with the exception that not enough starch is used to 

keep the yeast dry. The 
life of the yeast in this 
case is not entirely sus- 
pended, and so compress- 
ed yeast cakes must be 
strictly fresh. If dark 
spots appear, it means 
that some of the little 
yeast plants have died, 
and the yeast cake will 
not do its work as well. 
Compressed yeast is 
wrapped in tinfoil to 
keep it moist and free 
from dust. 

Action of Yeast. — When the yeast plant is put into the 
bread mixture it feeds upon the starch (which it first 
changes to sugar), and as it feeds, alcohol and carbon diox- 
ide gas are formed. This change of the sugar is called fer- 
mentation. The substance causing the change is a ferment. 
In this case the yeast is a ferment. If fermentation con- 
tinues too long, the mixture becomes sour. Dough sours 
when allowed to rise too long or at too high a temperature. 
When the dough is light enough, the bread is baked. Bak- 
ing kills the yeast plants quickly, and causes the alcohol to 
pass out of the bread as vapor. 

Experiments to show effect of temperature on yeast: — 






Fig. 15. 



Yeast plants (greatly enlarged). 
(U. S. D. A. Bui.) 



YEAST— BREAD 135 

1. Mix a yeast cake with 1^ c. lukewarm water and 2 
tsp. of sugar. How can you tell when water is lukewarm? 

2. Put a third of the above mixture in a glass. Keep 
at a freezing temperature for an hour. 

3. Put a third of the mixture in a glass and keep at the 
boiling point for an hour. 

4. Put one third of the mixture in a glass and keep at a 
lukewarm temperature for an hour. 

5. Set No. 2 in a warm place for an hour. Notice the 
change. Examine each one at the end of the hour and 
write conclusions. Why, in order to have the best results 
in bread making, should an even temperature be maintained 
while the dough is "rising?" 

BREAD 

Bread is one of man's earliest and most-used foods. 

Ingredients necessary for white bread are: Wheat 
flour, liquid (water or milk,) and yeast. Sugar, shortening, 
and salt are used to flavor it. 

Methods of Making Bread, — There are many ways of 
making bread, but all come under either of two main heads: 
(1) slow process or (2) quick process. 

In the slow process, mix the ingredients into a batter or 
a sponge and set to rise until it is full of air bubbles, usually 
over night. Then add enough flour to make a stiff dough. 
Knead on a floured board until smooth and elastic. Let 
rise again until double its bulk. Shape into loaves on the 
board; let stand in greased tins until double their size. 
Bake in a moderate oven 40 or 45 minutes. 

In the quick process, use more yeast. Mix ingredients 
into a sponge, and beat the sponge hard until it is full of 
air bubbles. This beating takes the place of one rising. 
Add enough flour to make stiff enough to knead; turn on 



136 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

a floured board and knead as in slow process. Let it rise 
once to double its bulk, shape into loaves, double bulk 
again, and bake. This process takes 5 hours. 

Setting the Sponge. — 1. Put yeast to soak in a little 
lukewarm water. This dissolves the starch with the yeast 
and frees the yeast plants so that they can act more quickly. 

2. Use half milk and water or all water. Half and 
half makes a richer loaf. All-milk bread dries out rapidly. 

3. Scald the milk in the upper part of a double boiler. 

4. Put shortening (lard or butter), sugar, and salt in 
a large, earthen bowl. 

5. Pour the scalded milk into the bowl and stir all 
until the sugar and butter are dissolved. 

6. Add the water to the ingredients in the bowl. 

7. When all is lukewarm, add the dissolved yeast 
mixture. Stir thoroughly. 

8. Add as much flour as liquid, slowly, and beat contin- 
ually until smooth. 

9. Add enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat 
this until full of bubbles. This drop batter in bread is 
called a "sponge" 

Making the Dough. — 10. Add enough more flour to 
make the batter stiff enough to handle on a board. 

11. Take mixture upon a board, leaving bowl per- 
fectly clean. 

12. Knead until it is smooth all through and springs 
back into place when pressed with the finger. Well- 
kneaded dough does not stick to the hands or board and 
can be kneaded without using flour on the board. 

13. Set in an earthen bowl in a warm place, and 
cover with a dry cloth. Wet the top of the dough slightly 
to keep it from getting so dry that it can not rise. 



YEAST— BREAD 



137 



First Rising. — 14. When the dough has doubled its 
bulk, remove from the bowl and knead just enough to 
shape into loaves. Cut in the right size for loaves. 

15. Prepare the pans by greasing thoroughly on 
bottom and sides. Be sure corners are well greased. 

16. Shape the loaves well; make them the length of 
the pans and the same width. 

17. Set the pans with bread in a warm place to rise and 
double bulk again. 

Baking Bread. — When bread is nearly ready /or the 
oven, test the oven, which should be hot enough to turn 




Fig. 16. Bread and rolls, with utensils tor makmj. 

a piece of white paper dark brown in 6 minutes. Place pans 
on lower part of the oven and as near the center as possible. 

Time. — Small loaves require about 35 minutes; larger 
loaves (about 4 inches thick), 50 or 60 minutes. 

Divide time into quarters as follows: — 

1st quarter, bread should rise and begin to brown. 

2nd ' J ~~" Vead continues to rise and brown. 



138 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

3rd quarter, it finishes browning and rising. 

4th quarter, baking is finished and the loaf draws away 
slightly from the sides of the pan. 

Turn the loaves so that they will brown evenly. 

Tests when Done. — Bread draws away from the sides 
of the pans when done, and sounds hollow when tapped 
with the finger. 

Care after Baking. — Remove loaves from pans, and 
turn on the side. If crisp crust is desired, let stand un- 
covered so the air can circulate around the loaf. If tender 
crust is desired, rub well with butter or milk. 

Good bread has a fine even grain, with no large holes 
in it. It has an even, golden brown crust. 

Uses for Stale Bread. — Stale bread may be used for 
crumbs, for toast (buttered and French), and for scallop 
dishes. Save and use all left-over pieces of bread. The 
large pieces are good for toast. Dry the smaller pieces or 
remnants of bread in a pan in the warming oven until 
they are crisp, but not brown. Crush the dry pieces with 
a rolling pin, and sift through a strainer. Put in a glass 
jar and keep covered until ready for use for croquettes, 
scalloped dishes or crumbing. Stale bread not dried may 
be used in puddings and griddle cakes. To freshen stale 
bread, put in a steamer over a kettle of boiling water, and 
steam 10 or 15 minutes until the bread is light and fresh. 

Suggestions on the method of conducting bread lessons 
in iy 2 to 3 hours 

Each girl makes one loaf and works alone. 

Preliminary Preparations. — Have double boiler ready, flour meas- 
ured, and the required amount of yeast at each desk, also pitchers 
filled with cold water when lesson begins. .Scald the milk for the 
entire class. 

Class Management. — Mix the soft batter in the double boilers 
over lukewarm water. (Allow about 15 minutes.) 

Beat the batter and add the rest of the flour. (Allow 10 minutes.) 

Demonstrate the kneading. (Allow 5 minutes.) 



YEAST— BREAD 139 

Class knead the dough (Allow about 15 minutes.) 
First rising — in double boiler. (Allow 3^ hour.) 
Wash dishes and grease tins while bread is rising. 
Demonstrate the shaping of the loaves. (About 5 minutes.) 
Class shape loaves and grease tops. (Allow about 10 minutes.) 
Second rising takes 3^ hour. Baking Y 2 hour. 
General Suggestions. — Use double period for bread lesson. 
Aim to have uniform work. One girl can delay the whole class. 
Increase the standard proportion of yeast to hurry the lesson. 
Hurry the measuring as much as possible. 
Hurry the first rising by the use of double boilers. 
Hurry the second rising by placing the loaves in the gas range 
slightly warmed; both the oven and broiling oven may be used. 
Guard against over-heating of dough. 
Small loaves require only 3^2 hour for baking. 

APPLICATION 
1 Slow-Process Bread 
1 c. scalded milk 1 tbsp. lard 

1 c. cold water 1 tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. sugar 34 cake compressed yeast 

About 6 or 63^ c. flour 34 c. lukewarm water 

Method. — Soak the yeast in lukewarm water. Scald 
the milk and pour over the salt, sugar, and lard in a bowl. 
When dissolved, add the cold water. When lukewarm, 
add the dissolved yeast and enough flour to make a drop 
batter. Beat hard until smooth. This sponge must stand 
several hours or over night to rise until very light. Pro- 
ceed as for kneading and baking. (Makes 2 loaves.) 

2 Quick-Process Bread 

1 c. scalded milk 1 tbsp. butter or lard 

1 c. cold water 1 tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. sugar 1 cake compressed yeast 

About 6 or 63^ c. flour 34 c. lukewarm water 

{Basis for 1 girl, \i rule, with double the amount of yeast for lY^-hour 
method.) 

Method. — Soak yeast in lukewarm water. Scald the 
milk and pour over the salt, sugar, and butter in a bowl. 
Then add the cold water, dissolved yeast, and flour to make 
a batter. Beat this batter until it is full of bubbles; then 
add enough more flour to knead on a board. Take upon a 



140 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

floured board and proceed as directed for kneading. This 
method requires only 5 hours and two risings, one being in 
loaf. The thorough beating of the sponge takes the place 
of one rising. (Makes 2 loaves.) 

3 Whole-wheat Bread 

1 cake compressed yeast 2 tsp. 3alt 

% c. lukewarm water l /i c. sugar 

1 sc. qt. whole-wheat flour 1 pt. warm milk 

Method. — Soak yeast cake in the warm water. Sift the 
flour, salt, and sugar; add the warm milk; beat the batter 
well until smooth; then add the yeast, and beat hard. 
Gradually add the sifted flour until the dough is stiff 
enough to be handled on a board. Handle lightly, place in 
a greased bowl, cover with a clean cloth, and let stand in a 
warm place. When double its bulk, shape into two small 
loaves, and let rise a few minutes. Brush with soft butter, 
and bake in a moderate oven for 45 minutes. 

For nut loaves, add V/i cups chopped pecans or walnuts 
with the flour. 

One cup of chopped floured raisins may be added before 
the last rising. 

4 Graham Bread 

1 c. hot water % c. warm water 

\ l /2 c. hot milk }/i cake yeast 

% c. molasses 3 c. Graham flour 

1M tsp. salt 3 c. white flour 

Method. — Add the hot liquid to the salt and molasses 
in a bowl, let cool, and when lukewarm, add yeast dis- 
solved in the lukewarm water. Sift the Graham flour and 
use only the sifted part. Mix with the white flour and grad- 
ually add to the yeast mixture. Beat well, cover and let 
double its bulk. Beat down again, put into greased pans 
and let nearly double bulk again before baking. 



YEAST— BREAD 141 

6. Yeast Cornmeal Bread 
(Conservation Recipe) 
\% c. liquid (milk or water) 1 J/£ cake compressed yeast sof- 
2 tbsp. sugar tened in \i c. of liquid 

1 tbsp. fat 1 c. cornmeal 

2 tsp. salt 2 c. flour 

This amount makes one loaf of bread. 

Method. — Add sugar, fat and salt to liquid and bring 
to boiling point. Add the cornmeal slowly, stirring con- 
stantly. Bring to the boiling point. Remove from the 
fire and cool. These proportions of cornmeal and water 
result in so thick a mixture that to add the given amounts 
of flour looks impossible. It can be done, however. Add 
compressed yeast softened in 1 cup of water. Add flour 
and knead. Let rise till about double its bulk, knead again 
and put into pans. When light, bake in a moderate oven 
for at least an hour. If dried yeast is used, a sponge should 
be made from about Yi cupful of liquid taken from the 
amount given in the proportions and some of the flour. 
Allow to rise before adding the cornmeal mixture and the 
remainder of the flour. 

6. Yeast Oatmeal Bread 
(Conservation Recipe) 

1 c. liquid (milk or water) 3^ cake compressed yeast sof- 

2 tbsp. sugar tened in \i c. liquid 
1 tbsp. fat 1 c. rolled oats 

1 tsp. salt 2Yz c. wheat flour 

This proportion makes one loaf of bread. 

Method. — Scald liquid and pour over rolled oats, sugar, 
salt and fat. Let stand until lukewarm. Add yeast soft- 
ened in warm water. Add flour and knead. Let rise until 
double its bulk. Knead again and place in pans. When 
light, bake 45 minutes to 1 hour in a moderate oven. 

Substitute flours may be used in any recipe for breads 
if the sponge is made with wheat flour and the substitutes 
added after the first rising. 



LESSON 23 

BREAD— ROLLS 

Review setting sponge for bread. Review temperature 
for yeast. 

The objects of kneading bread and rolls are: — 

1. To make the gluten in the dough elastic. 

2. To break the large air bubbles, and distribute the 
carbon dioxide evenly through the dough. 

The objects of baking bread are: — 

1. To make a more digestible and palatable food. 

2. To cook the starch. To expand the gas. 

3. To form a crust to hold in the gas. 

4. To kill the yeast plants. 

5. To drive off the alcohol formed by the yeast plant. 
Rolls. — Rolls differ from bread in that they are richer 

and sweeter. This is done by using all milk for the liquid 
and adding more butter and sugar to make them shorter or 
more tender. 

Kinds of Rolls. — A variety of rolls is made from the 
same sponge, but may vary in size, in shape, and by the 
addition of fruit (currants, raisins) or spices (cinnamon). 

Suggestions to teachers on conducting a lesson on rolls in 13^ 
hours. 

Use twice the amount of yeast. Prepare the sponge before class- 
time, and let it rise ready for first mixing. 

At the beginning of the lesson measure out the light sponge for 
each desk. (Allow 10 minutes.) 

Mix flour into the sponge. (Allow 10 minutes.) 
Two girls should work together. Knead dough. (15 minutes.) 
Demonstrate shaping of rolls. (Allow about 10 minutes.) 
Class shape rolls. (Allow about 15 minutes.) Omit the second 
vising for class work. Let rolls rise in slightly warmed ovens ^ hour. 
Class wash dishes. Bake rolls 15 to 20 minutes. 

(142) 



BREAD— ROLLS I 43 

APPLICATION 

1. Parker House Rolls (3 hr.) 
2 c. milk l A c. butter 

1 tsp. salt 1 cake compressed yeast 

2 tbsp. sugar % c. lukewarm water 

6J/£ c. flour (more or less) 

Method. — Mix yeast with the lukewarm water. Scald 
the milk and add the butter, sugar, and salt ; when lukewarm 
add the dissolved yeast. Add enough flour to make a drop 
batter. Beat well and let rise until double in bulk. Add 
enough more flour to make a stiff dough. Knead and let 
rise until double in bulk. Roll out to about }4 mcn m 
thickness. Cut with a cooky cutter, spread with melted 
butter, and crease the middle with a knife handle. Fold 
double, put close together in the pan, let rise until double 
their size. When ready to bake, brush with milk or 
slightly beaten egg. Bake in a hot oven 12 or 15 minutes. 

(Basis for 2, % /i cup sponge.) 

2. Clover Leaf Rolls 

Method. — Use the same rule as for Parker House Rolls. 
For one roll, shape three small balls of dough about an 
inch in diameter. Place the balls together in a greased 
muffin tin. Let rise, and bake as other rolls. 

3. Cinnamon Rolls 

Method. — Use the same sponge and method as for 
Parker House Rolls. Roll out sponge to }4 inch thickness, 
brush with melted butter, sprinkle with sugar and cinna- 
mon. Roll up the dough and cut off rolls an inch thick. 
Place in buttered pans, let rise, and bake as other rolls. 



LESSON 24 

PROTEIN— MEAT 

Stock Soups 

Meat includes the flesh of all animals used for food; as, 
beef, veal, mutton, pork, poultry, and game. 

Beef is from the ox, steer, or cow. 

Veal is from the 6 to 8 weeks' old calf. 

Mutton is from the sheep over 1 year old. 

Lamb is from the young sheep, 6 to 8 weeks to 1 year old. 

Pork is from the pig. 

Poultry includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese. 

Game includes wild animals and fowl; as, deer, quail, 
partridges. 

Structure of Meat. — Meat consists of muscles, bone, and 
fat. 

The muscles are made up of bundles of fibers or cells 
bound together by connective tissue. The muscle fibers 
contain protein, extractives, and water. The connective 
tissue is very tough. Those of much-used muscles, as in 
the neck or legs, are much stronger than those of muscles 
not greatly used, as in the back. 

The bones consist of about half solid matter and half 
water. The solid part is composed of two-thirds mineral 
matter and one-third animal matter, chiefly fat and ossein. 
Some bones are hollow, and contain a fatty substance called 
marrow. 

At the ends of bones and connecting bones at the 
joints are bands of cartilage or gristle, which is like soft 
bone. In young animals the bones are soft, becoming 
harder with age. 

(144) 



PRO TEIN—MEA T 



145 



The fat occurs under the skin, between the bundles of 
fibers, and around the internal organs. 

Composition of Meat. — Meats are similar in composi- 
tion, but different cuts of thesame animal 
will differ in the proportion of food prin- 
ciples, as will also the same cuts from 
different animals. This is due to the 
nature and condition of the animal and 
the manner of feeding. Meat contains 
large percentages of protein, fat, and 
water. 

Protein. — The amount of protein is 
about the same — 13 to 20 per cent — in 
all meat. The principal meat proteins 
are: — 

Fibrin, which is the substance in the 
blood that makes it coagulate when shed. 

Gelatin, extracted from the connec- 
tive tissue, tendons, and cartilage and 
bone, by long, slow cooking in water. 
Gelatin is dissolved in hot water, but 
thickens when cold. 

Albumin, which is similar to that 
found in eggs, and is the main form of protein in meat. 

Extractives or juices of meat, which give the meat its 
flavor. Young animals have more albumin, while old 
ones have more nitrogenous extractives. 

Fat in meat varies in amount very widely. Much is 
lost in the preparation for market, in cooking, and at the 
table, so that only about one-half the amount of fat is 
available to the body. Older animals well fed have more 
fat than young animals. The fat takes the place of some 
of the water, and does not affect the protein. 

—10 




Fig. 17. Diagram 
illustrating structure of 
meat: a, muscle fibers; 
b, fat cells; c, connec- 
tive tissue. (Hutchi- 
son.) 



146 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Water makes up about three-fourths of the weight of 
meat, but varies greatly — from 50 to 75 per cent. It is 
much more abundant in the young animal than in the old. 
Veal and lamb contain more water than beef and mutton. 

Mineral matter in meat is less than one per cent. This 
is found in larger proportions in the older animals and is 
abundant in the extractives. There is no carbohydrate 

in meat. 

Approximate Composition of Meat 

Prote r Water Fat Ash 

20% 70 to 75% 2 to 5% 1% 

Food Value.— Meat is the most important of the protein 
foods It is like the human body in structure and com- 
position and tully supplies the necessary protein and fat to 
build and repair body tissues and give heat and energy. 
It is easily and thoroughly digested when used in proper 
amounts. Fat meats are harder to digest than lean meats, 
because the fat interferes with the digestion of the protein 
in the stomach. Meats with loose fibers are easier to 
digest than those with close fibers, for the digestive juices 
can act more readily upon them. The extractives stimu- 
late the body activity, and people who use animal food in 
their diet seem to have a greater vitality than those who 
live entirely on vegetables. 

The objects of cooking meat are: — 

1. To extract the juices, as in soups, beef tea; or 

2. To retain the juices, as in broiling and roasting. 

3. To develop the flavor. 

4. To soften the connective tissues and make it more 
digestible. 

5. To kill any bacteria and parasites that may be 
present. 



PRO TEIN—MEA T 147 

Experiments to show the effect of heat on meat: — 

1. Put a small piece of meat into cold water. Let 
stand. 

2. Put a small piece of meat into boiling water. Let 
stand. 

3. Put a small piece of meat into a hot frying pan, 
turn several times. 

Note the changes that occur in each instance, and com- 
pare. 

What substance in meat coagulates with high temper- 
ature to cause the result in Experiment 2? 

How should meat be cooked to extract juices, as in 
soups? To retain juices, as in steaks and roasts? 

Meat Soups. — Soups that have meat as their basis are 
called stock soups. The stock is the essential element 
which gives it flavor and nutritive value. Stock is also 
used in meat gravies to make them richer. 

Kinds of stock soups are: — 

1. Bouillon is made from beef stock, delicately sea- 
soned. 

2. Brown soup stock is made from beef and is highly 
seasoned with vegetables and sweet herbs. 

3. White soup stock is made of chicken or veal, deli- 
cately seasoned. 

4. Consomme is made of several kinds of meat (beef, 
veal, and fowl), highly seasoned with vegetables, and 
cleared. 

Food Value. — Meat soups contain very little nutriment, 
but have a strong meat flavor, due to the extractives. 
They stimulate the flow of the digestive juices, warm the 
stomach, and prepare it for solid food. 



148 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Proportions of ingredients for soup stock are: Use 
% lean meat to J/£ bone and fat, and 1 quart of water to 
each pound of meat and bone. 

Meats for Soups. — The much-used muscles of meat 
contain more juice; the hard connective tissue is softened 
by long, moderate cooking. Select meat from the legs 
or neck. Use left-overs from roasts and steaks to add to 
the flavor, and utilize all other scraps. 

Any of the following may be used as seasoning for 
soups: vegetables, cereals, herbs, spices, and noodles. 

Directions for Soup Making. — Use all trimmings from 
roasts and steaks with soup meat. 

Cut up meat in small pieces. Break the bones, so that 
the juice may escape easily. 

To give color and flavor to the soup, sear a small amount 
of the meat in a frying pan until brown. 

Put meat, bone, and fat in cold water. Soak for half 
an hour until the water is red. The cold water draws out 
the juices. 

Simmer 5 to 6 hours, never allowing temperature to 
reach the boiling point. Boiling toughens the albumin and 
does not permit the flow of juices. Clean and cut up vege- 
tables and add at the last hour of cooking. 

When done, strain out the meat and vegetables. Put 
into several small jars, so that the entire amount is not 
disturbed each time some is used. 

Cool quickly, and keep in cold place. Keep a layer of 
fat on top of stock to exclude air. Why? Remove the 
fat from the soup stock before making soup. 

Use soups often, and vary by different additions. 



PROTEIN— MEAT liV 

APPLICATION (Extracting juices) 

1. Brown Soup Stock 

4 lbs. beef shin 6 cloves 

2 qts. cold water y 2 bay leaf 

Yl tsp. pepper 2 sprigs parsley 
Carrot ] 

Onion f one "half c. each cut in dice 
Celery J 

1 tsp. salt 

NOTE. — A few tablespoonfuls of German dried vege- 
tables for soups may be successfully substituted for fresh 
vegetables to give flavor. 

Method. — Wipe beef, and cut the lean meat in small 
pieces. Brown a third of it in a hot frying pan in marrow 
from a marrow bone. Put remaining two-thirds with bone 
and fat in soup kettle, add cold water, and let stand for 
Y 2 hour. Place on back of range, add browned meat, and 
heat gradually to boiling point. As the scum rises, it' 
should be removed. Cover and cook slowly 6 hours at a 
temperature below the boiling point. Add vegetables and 
seasonings, cook \]/ 2 hours longer, strain, and cool as 
quickly as possible. 

2. Bouillon 

Method. — Bouillon is made from Brown Soup Stock by 
removing the cake of fat, and clearing. It is served clear 
in bouillon cups. 

To Clear Soups.— Put stock over fire, and add a slightly 
beaten egg white with the shell. Stir, let boil 2 or 3 min- 
utes, and then simmer 10 to 15 minutes. The albumen of 
the egg coagulates and entangles the particles of meat and 
vegetables as in a net. Remove the scum, and strain the 
soup through a cloth or fine strainer. Serve clear. 



150 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

3. Vegetable Soup 

Method. — To 1 quart of stock, add 3 tablespoonfuls 
each of celery and turnip, either chopped or cut with 
vegetable cutter; 1 tablespoonful of carrot; and 1 cup of 
cooked and strained tomato, and a little fried onion; or 
omit the tomato and onion and add small green peas, 
cauliflower, asparagus tips, or all three. 

4. Noodle Soup 

Method. — To 1 quart of stock add ]/i cupful of noodles. 
Macaroni, vermicelli, rice, or barley may be added to the 
stock for variation. 

Serve with soup: croutons, toasted crackers, or cheese 
balls. 



LESSON 25 

PROTEIN— BEEF 

Broiling and Roasting 

Beef is obtained from the steer, ox, or cow. It is the most 
used and the most sustaining meat. It should hang about 
three weeks to ripen and develop flavor. 

Appearance. — Good beef is bright red, fine grained, and 
well marked with fat. The fat is fine and light yellow in 
color; the fat around the vital organs is white and crumbly 
and is called suet. Flabby, dark, coarse beef with yellow 
fat indicates a poor quality. Beef from an old or underfed 
animal has very little fat. 

Cuts of Beef. — The beef animal is cut into halves 
lengthwise along the back. Each half or side weighs about 
450 pounds and is divided into the fore and hind quarters 
by cutting between the 12th and 13th ribs, leaving one rib 
on the hind quarter. 

The Cuts of Beef 

Fore Quarter Cuts 

Cuts Use Cost 

1. Neck Hamburg steak, soup. 



2. Chuck Stew, pot roast, boil 

3. Ribs Roast, stew 

4. Shoulder ckx 4 Boil, stew 

5. Shin or f jreshank. . .Soup stock 

6. Brisket Corned, stew 

7. Plate Boiled, corned, stew 

Hind Quarter Cuts 

1. Rump Pot roast, stew, mince meat 

2. Round Pot roast, steak, stew, beef tea. 

3. Loin Fine roast, steak 

(a) Porterhouse Steak 

(b)Sirloin Steak, roast 

(c ) Tenderloin Steak 

4. Hind shank Cheap stew, soup 

A. Flank Corned, stuff, stew, roll 

(151) 



152 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 




Fig. 18. The wholesale cuts of beef: /, 
round; 2, rump; 3, shank; 4, loin; 5, flank; 
6, rib; 7, chuck; 8, clod; 9. neck; 10, plate, 
which includes //. brisket; 12, shank. 



PROTEIN— BEEF 151 

Other Parts. CogT 

1. Heart Braise 

2. Tail Soup 

3. Tongue Boil 

4. Kidneys Stew 

5. Brains Scallop, cream 

6. Tripe (lining of the 

stomach) Stew, fry 

7. Suet Try out, use as fat 

8. Thymus gland and pancreas (calf), or sweetbreads . . 

Care of Meat. — 1. Remove meat from paper as soon 
as delivered. 

2. Keep meat in a cool place, but not directly on ice. 

3. Before cooking always wipe meat off well with a 
damp cloth wrung out of cold water. Why? Never wash 
meat in water. Why? 

Retaining Juices. — Juices may be retained in the cooked 
meat by broiling, roasting, frying, or sauteing, which sears 
over at once the outside of the meat and seals up the little 
tubes that contain the juices. Only the tender cuts of meat 
can be used in this way, since tough meats require a long, 
slow heat. 

Broiling. — Cuts best for broiling use are (1) porterhouse, 
(2) sirloin, (3) tenderloin, and (4) round. 

Roasting. — Best cuts for roasting are the top or middle 
of sirloin, back of rump, or the first three ribs. 

Time Guide for Broiling 

Beef (rare), per pound 8 to 10 minutes 

Beef (well done), per pound. . . 12 to 15 minutes 

APPLICATION 

1. Broiled Steak — Oven 

Sirloin steak 1 to 2 inches thick 

Butter, salt, pepper 

Parsley and lemon for garnishing 

Method. — Wipe the meat with a damp cloth and trim 
off the extra fat. Have the broiler smoking hot; rub with a 



154 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



little fat. Place the meat in the broiler and broil, turning 
every 10 seconds for the first minute. (Use two large spoons 
for turning, as a fork would pierce the meat.) After the first 
minute turn occasionally until well cooked on both sides. 
Remove to hot platter, spread with butter, and sprinkle with 
salt and pepper. Garnish with slices of lemon and parsley. 
Serve with Maitre d'Hotel Butter or Mushroom Sauce. 

2. Roast Beef 

Method. — Wipe, put on a rack in a dripping pan, skin 
side down, and rub over with salt and dredge with flour. 




Fig. 19. Beef: cuts from rump and ribs. 

Place in a hot oven, that the surface may be quickly seared, 
thus preventing the escape of inner juices. After the flour 
in the pan is browned, reduce heat, and baste with the fat 
that has melted; if meat is quite lean, it may be necessary 
to put trimmings of fat in the pan. Baste every 10 minutes. 
If this rule is followed meat will be found more juicy. When 
meat is about half done, turn it over and dredge with flour, 
that skin side may be uppermost for final browning. If 



PROTEIN BEEF 155 

there is danger that the flour in the pan may burn, add a 
small quantity of water. 

Allow 15 to 20 minutes to each pound of beef in roasting. 

Beef, to be well roasted, should be started in a hot oven 
and the heat later decreased, so that when carved the slices 
will be red throughout, with a crisp layer of golden brown 
fat on top. Beef roasted at a temperature so high that the 
surface is hardened before heat can penetrate to the center 
is most unsatisfactory. 

Sirloin of rib roast may have the bones removed, and 
be rolled, skewered, and tied in shape. 

Roast Beef Gravy 

Method. — Remove some of the fat from the pan, leaving 

4 tbsp. Place on the front of the range, add 4 tbsp.flour and 

stir until well browned, the flour browned in the pan giving 

additional color to the gravy. Add gradually V/2 cups 

boiling water, cook 5 minutes, season with salt and pepper, 

and strain. If the flour should burn in the pan, the gravy 

will be full of black carbon particles. 

3. Yorkshire Pudding 
1 c. milk 2 eggs 

1 c. flour }i tsp. salt 

Method. — Mix salt and flour, gradually add the milk, 
stir until smooth, add eggs, and beat hard. Spread on the 
bottom of baking pan after removing the roast, until mix- 
ture is one-half inch thick. Bake 20 minutes in hot oven. 
Baste, after the mixture is well risen, with some fat from 
the roast. Cut in squares and serve on platter surrounding 
the roast. 

4. Maitre d'Hdtel Butter 
}/i c. butter 1 tbsp. chopped parsley 

3^ tsp. salt 1 tbsp. lemon juice 

^ ssp. pepper 

Method. — Rub the butter to a cream, add the salt, pep- 
per, parsley, and the lemon juice. Spread on hot steak. 



156 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

6. Dried Beef, White Sauce 

yi lb. dried beef sliced thin 1 tbsp. flour 

1 c. milk }/i tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. butter Speck of pepper 

Method. — Remove the skin and separate dried beef in 
pieces, cover with hot water, let stand 10 minutes, and 
drain. Make a medium white sauce. Add beef to white 
sauce and heat. Serve on squares of hot toast. 

(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 

6. Dried Beef and Macaroni 

See page 61. 



LESSON 26 

PROTEIN— BEEF (Continued) 
Pan Broiling 

Food Value of Beef. — Beef has the greatest food value 
of all meat and is in season the year round. 

Lean meat is chiefly protein, of a kind that the body can 
use easily and quite completely. Because meat is high in 
protein, it is easy to eat more than the body needs, which 
is harmful. Only very active persons doing much phys- 
ical work need meat more often than twice a day. For 
most persons a meat dish once a day is enough. Meat 
must be accompanied with dishes of the carbohydrate class. 
Name some. 

What to Serve with Beef. — With steak, serve fried onions, 
French fried potatoes, au gratin potatoes, combination 
salad, or mushrooms. 

With roasts, serve either mashed, creamed, or roast 
brown potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, corn, currant jelly, 
or Yorkshire pudding. 

Pan broiling is the application of heat to food by means 
of hot metal. The same results may be obtained as in 
the oven broil, but it is especially good for the coarser 
cuts of steaks. Name some. 

APPLICATION 

1. Panbroiled Steak 
Round steak, %-l inch thick Salt, pepper, butter 

Method. — Wipe meat with a damp cloth and remove 
the extra fat. Heat the frying pan very hot. Rub a 
piece of fat in pan. Put the meat in and as soon as one 

(1571 



158 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

side is seared turn to sear the other side. Turn frequently 
for the first minute. Cook 6 or 8 minutes, turning occa- 
sionally. Spread with a little butter and sprinkle with 
salt and pepper. Remove to a hot platter and garnish 
with parsley for serving. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 1 piece 2J/£ inches square.) 

2. Hamburg Steak 

Method. — Chop fine some raw lean beef, season with 
salt and pepper, shape in small flat cakes, panbroil in a 
hot frying pan. A few drops of onion juice or onion cut 
fine may be added, and also one egg slightly beaten. In 
forming the cakes, handle as little as possible. Cakes 
that are pressed too compact will be hard and solid. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % c. chopped meat.) 

3. Mushroom Sauce 

1 can mushrooms ]/i c. flour 

14. c butter 2 c. brown soup stock 

^ tbsp. lemon juice or mushroom liquor 

Salt and pepper 

Method. — Drain and rinse the mushrooms and chop 
fine one half of them. Cook 5 minutes with butter and 
lemon juice; drain. Make brown sauce of butter, flour, and 
soup stock or mushroom liquor according to Method 1 
for white sauce. Cook 10 or 15 minutes, add remaining 
mushrooms, cut in quarters or slices, and cook 2 minutes. 
Use fresh mushrooms in preference to canned ones. 

Mushrooms become tough easily if handled much ; they 
require only a few minutes to cook. 

(Basis for 2 girls , \i rule.) 



LESSON 27 

PROTEIN 

Cooking Tough Meats and Left-overs 

In order that there be no waste to the beef animal, all 
parts are used. The tough meats require a long, moderate 
heat to soften the connective tissue and hard muscles. 
This is accomplished by using them for stews, hash or 
meat loaf. 

Stewing is a combination of extracting part of the meat 
juice and retaining part by cooking a long time in a limited 
quantity of water. 

APPLICATION 

1. Beef Stew 

2 lbs. beef (cut into inch cubes) Salt and pepper 

}/i c. flour 1 carrot \ ^ • -., . . j* 

Water 1 turnip )f ut m ^ inch dlce 

4 potatoes (sliced) 2 small onions (sliced) 

Method. — Wipe the meat and cut best portions into 
inch cubes. Put the bone and poorer portions of meat, 
cut fine, into cold water and cook them slowly. Try out 
some pieces of beef fat in a frying pan and remove scraps 
Roll the best portions of meat in flour; cook in a frying 
pan until brown, stirring with a knife so that all surfaces 
may be browned. Brown the onions also. Put the meat 
and onions into the kettle in which the stew is to be cooked. 
Rinse out frying pan with hot water and turn the water 
into the stew. Cover meat with boiling water and cook 
slowly at least 2 hours or until the meat is tender. Remove 
the bone and poorer portions of meat, strain the liquid 

(159) 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 




PROTEIN— BEEF 161 

into the stew* add the vegetables (excepting potatoes) , and 
cook stew about 45 minutes longer. Parboil the potatoes 
for 5 minutes and add them to the stew and cook 15 minutes. 
Add seasoning. If the stew is not thick enough, add a 
little thickening of flour and water and boil it 5 minutes 
longer. (Class work as a unit.) 

2. Lamb Stew with Dumplings 

2 lb. lamb (shoulder) 1 c. tomato 

3 c. boiling water 2 small potatoes 
1 small onion 2 tbsp. rice 

Salt and pepper to taste 

Method. — Wipe meat and cut best portions into 2-inch 
pieces. Put the bone and poorer portions of meat into 
cold water, let them stand 1 hour, and then cook them 
slowly. Brown the onions a golden brown in hot fat in a 
frying pan. Then add the best portions of the meat and 
brown them also. Put the onions and meat into a 
saucepan, cover them with boiling water and let simmer 
2 hours. Add the washed rice when meat has cooked 1 
hour. Parboil the potatoes, add them to the stew and 
cook 20 minutes longer. Add the strained tomato 10 
minutes after the potatoes are put in. Add the season- 
ing. The tomato may be omitted and boiling water used 

in its place. 

3. Dumplings for Lamb Stew 
2 c. flour Yl tsp. salt 

4 tsp. baking powder % c. milk 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the 
milk slowly until a smooth drop-batter is formed. Drop 
by the spoonful into the boiling stew on top of the pota- 
toes and meat. Cover closely to keep in the steam, and 
cook 10 minutes without lifting the cover. Take out the 
dumplings, which should be light and fluffy, put the meat 
and vegetables in the center of a hot platter, and the dump- 
—li 



162 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

lings around the edge. Dumplings may be dropped into 
a steamer and steamed over the hot stew or over a kettle 
of boiling water. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }4 rule.) 

4. Boiled Dinner 

4 lb. corned beef 2 small carrots 

2 beets i turnip 

1 small cabbage 6 potatoes 

Method. — Wash meat with damp cloth and put it to 
soak for }/£ hour. Put it in a kettle with boiling water to 
nearly cover and cook until tender (about 3 hours). Wash 
the vegetables, scrape carrots and turnip, and cut in small 
pieces. Cut the cabbage into quarters. Pare potatoes 
and cut into halves. Two hours before dinner time skim 
all the fat off the liquid and add more boiling water. Re- 
move meat when tender; then put in the carrots, after- 
ward the cabbage and turnip, and Y2 hour before dinner 
add the potatoes. Cook beets separately. When tender 
take the vegetables up carefully, drain the water from 
the cabbage by pressing in a colander, slice the carrots 
and beets, and cover the beets with vinegar. Put the 
meat in the center of a large dish, and serve the carrots, 
turnips, and potatoes around the edge. 

6. Browned Hash 

2 c. chopped cold roast beef 2 c. chopped cold corned beef 

2 c. cold boiled potatoes 2 tbsp. hot milk 

Few drops of onion juice Salt and pepper to taste 

Method. — Mix all ingredients thoroughly. Put into a 
frying pan 2 tablespoonfuls of beef fat or butter. Spread 
the meat mixture in the frying pan and cook, without 
stirring, over a moderate flue for about 30 minutes. When 
it is browned underneath, fold it over like an omelet and 
place on a hot platter. 



PROTEIN— BEEF 163 

6. Meat Loaf 

2 lb. beef (cut from the round) 1 tsp. onion juice 

1 tsp. salt i^ tsp. pepper 

1 beaten egg j| c. milk 

1 tbsp. chopped parsley 2-inch cube salt pork lac 

1 c. bread crumbs 

Method. — Wipe the meat with a damp cloth and put 
through a meat chopper with the pork. Add seasoning, 
mix well, add the crumbs, well-beaten egg, and the milk 
gradually. Place in a well-greased pan. Put small 
pieces of butter or strips of bacon on top. Bake 40 minutes 
in a moderate oven. Baste every 10 minutes with 1 tabie- 
spoonful of butter melted in 1 cupful of boiling water. 

Strips of pimento and a couple of hard-boiled eggs 
placed in the center of the loaf add a pleasing garnish to 
the loaf when sliced. 

7. Chartreuse of Rice and Meat or Fish 

1 c. rice 1 pt. cold meat or fish 

2 qts. boiling water 1 c. tomato sauce 
1 c. stock 1 egg 

Method. — Cook the rice in the boiling water until 
tender. Drain and Jine a mold about a half inch deep. 
Beat the egg slightly and mix with the finely cut meat or 
fish, then add the stock. Fill the center of the mold with 
the meat mixture, cover the top with rice and steam 30 
minutes. Turn from the mold and serve with tomato 
sauce. 

Boiled hominy or mashed potato may be used in place 
of the rice. 



LESSON 28 

PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 

VEAL 

Appearance. — Veal is pale pink and the fat is clear 
white. The best comes from a calf two months old. 

Cuts of Veal 

Cut Use Cost 

1 . Leg Cutlets 

2. Loin Chops and roast 

3. Ribs Roast 

Saddle [(1) and (2), 

or two hind quarters)] Roast 

Rack [ (3), (4), (5), 

or two fore quarters)] Chops 

4. Breast Roast 

5. Shoulder Stuffed whole for roast 

6. Neck Stew 

LAMB 

Appearance. — The meat of lamb is red and the fat is 
white. The bones are red and turn white with age. 

Kinds. — Spring lamb is from 6 to 8 weeks old. Year- 
lings are about one year old. The best lamb comes from 
animals 6 weeks to 3 months old. Lamb may be used as 
soon as killed. 

MUTTON 

Appearance. — The meat of mutton is bright red, the 
fat is yellowish, and the bones are white. The layer of fat 
next to the skin in mutton has a very strong flavor of oil 
and wool, which makes it very distasteful to most persons. 
This should be removed before cooking. Mutton must 
hang to ripen. 

(164) 



PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 





Fig. 21. Cuts of veal: /, leg; 2, 
loin; 3, ribs; 4, breast; 5, shoulder; 6 
aeck. (111. Bui. 147) 



Fig. 22. Cuts of mutton: 1, leg' 
2 r loin; J. ribs; 4. breast; 5, shoulder 



166 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Cuts of Lamb and Mutton 

Cut Use Cost 

1. Leg Roast and chops 

2. Loin Chops, saddle roast 

3. Ribs Chops and roast 

4. Breast Stew and soup 

5. Shoulders Roasts 

Back[(2),(3)] 

Food Value. — Mutton comes next to beef in food value. 
The red meat of beef and mutton is more stimulating than 
the white meat of veal and poultry. Veal and lamb are 
less nutritious than the flesh of the full-grown animals. 

What to Serve with Veal. — With cutlets or chops serve 
peas, rice croquettes. 

With stewed veal serve dumplings, baked potatoes. 

With veal loaf or roast serve peas, asparagus, spinach, 
cauliflower, rice, white or sweet potatoes. 

What to Serve with Mutton. — With broiled chops serve 
creamed potatoes, peas. 

With leg of mutton serve caper sauce, rice, mint sauce, 
cabbage, or creamed turnips. 

With saddle of mutton serve baked macaroni without 
cheese, peas, or asparagus tips. 

With cold mutton serve sliced tomatoes with French 
dressing. 

What to Serve with Lamb. — With roast lamb serve mint 
sauce, boiled rice, cucumbers, white or sweet potatoes, 
squash, parsnips, eggplant, new peas, or asparagus tips. 

With cold lamb serve lettuce, mint salad with French 

dressing. 

APPLICATION 

1. Lamb Chops Broiled 

Method. — Wipe chops and put in red-hot frying pan. 
As soon as the under surface is seared, turn and sear the 
other side. Turn often, using spoon, so as not to pierce 



PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 



167 



surface. If liked rare, cook 6 minutes. Let chops stand 
on edge in the frying pan to brown the outside fat. When 
nearly cooked, sprinkle with salt. Drain on brown paper, 
spread with butter, and serve with Tomato Sauce. 

Rib chops which have the bone cut short and scraped 
clean nearly to the lean meat are called French chops. 
Chops for pan broiling should have the flank and most of the 
fat removed. 

2. Breaded Veal Chops 

Method. — Wipe, trim off superfluous fat, sprinkle with 
salt and pepper, dip in crumbs, in egg, and then again in 
crumbs, and fry until well browned on each side. Care 




Fig. 23. Veal: cuts from leg and loin. 

should be taken in turning not to shake off the crumbs. 
Cover closely and continue cooking over a low fire until 
thoroughly cooked and tender (15 to 20 minutes). Veal 
cutlets may be cooked in the same way. These may be 
cooked in deep fat. 

(Basis for 2, 1 chop or cutlet.) 

3. Roast Lamb 

Method. — Wipe meat (leg of lamb), sprinkle with salt 
and pepper, place on a rack in dripping pan, and dredge 
meat and bottom of pan with flour. Place in hot oven, and 



168 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



baste as soon as the flour in the pan is brown and every 15 
minutes afterward. Cook about \ z /i hours. If the flour in 
the pan burns, add a small quantity of water while the meat 
is cooking. Serve with Mint Sauce. 

4. Mint Sauce 

}/% c. mint leaves chopped fine 2 tbsp. powdered sugar 
1 c. hot vinegar 

Method. — Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar and pour 

over the chopped mint leaves. Let stand 30 minutes to 

infuse. If the vinegar is very strong, dilute with water. 

Serve hot. 

5. Veal Birds 

Method. — Select slices of veal from the leg, cut as thinly 
as possible, remove bone, skin, and fat. Cut in pieces 2Y2 
inches long by V/2 inches wide, each piece making a bird. 




Fig. 24. Lamb: cuts from ribs and loin. 

Chop trimmings of veal and a small piece of fat salt 
pork, and add one-half their measure of finely crushed 
crackers. Season with pepper, cayenne, poultry seasoning, 
lemon juice, and onion juice. Moisten with beaten egg 
and water. Spread each piece with a thin layer of stuffing, 



PROTEIN— TEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 169 

taking care not to have the mixture come too close to the 
edge. Roll, and fasten with skewers or toothpicks. 
Sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and saute 
in hot butter until a golden brown. Put in a stew pan, 
add rich milk to half cover meat, and cook slowly 25 min- 
utes or until tender. Serve on small pieces of toast and 
garnish with parsley. 

6. Veal Loaf 

2% lbs. veal 3^ c. catsup 

}/2 lb. salt pork 1 c. cracker crumbs 

4 eggs Cayenne, salt, pepper 

Juice of small lemon Bit of butter 

Method. — Mix ingredients thoroughly and shape into a 
loaf, placing butter on top. Bake 2 hours in covered pan. 
May be served with border of peas. 

7. Crown Roast 

Method. — Use lamb rather than mutton. Select parts 
from two loins containing the ribs; scrape flesh from the 
bone between ribs, as far as lean meat, and trim off back 
bone. Roll meat displaced into a semicircle, having ribs 
outside, and sew ends together to form a crown. Put a 
cup in the middle to hold the roast in place. Trim ends of 
bones even and bind each bone with a thin strip of fat salt 
pork. For a small roast allow about 50 minutes for roast- 
ing. Remove the pork from the bones before serving. Fill 
the center of roast with mashed potatoes or peas. Be sure 
the ribs are separated at the joints before roasting, so that 
they may be easily served. 



LESSON 29 

PROTEIN— PORK 

Appearance. — Fresh pork is pale red in color and firm 
in texture; the fat is white. Pork is more liable to be 
diseased than any other meat. Diseased pork appears 
speckled or lumpy. The specks are little worms, called 
trichinae, which get into the muscle of the hog. When 
taken into our bodies, these are very harmful. They 
become active and produce a disease called trichinosis, 
which is nearly always fatal. 

For this reason pork should be cooked very thoroughly 
to kill the trichinae. Pork requires 20 to 30 minutes per 
pound for cooking. Smoking does not kill trichinae. The 
frequent use of smoked ham without further cooking is 
liable to be very injurious. 

Cuts of Pork 
Cut Use Cost 

1. Loin and ribs Chops, roast, broil 

2. Ham, whole or in 

halves Cured, salted, smoked, — boiled 

sauted, or baked 

3. Back Spareribs 

4. Shoulder Cooked as ham, but not as good. 

5. Belly — bacon Cured, salted, smoked, — boiled, 

or sauted 

6. Head Headcheese, sausage 

7. Kidney fat Tried out to make "leaf-lard." 

Food Value. — Pork is usually so fat that it is difficult to 
digest. This is due to the large amount of fat between the 
fibers. It furnishes so much heat and energy to the body 
that, together with other foods in the diet, it may furnish 
an excess of heat, and for most persons must not be used as 

(170) 



PROTEIN—PORK 



171 




Fig. 25. Cuts of pork: /, ham; 2. loin; 
3, belly; 4, 5, 7, 9, shoulder, 6, jowl; S, 9, (at 
back. (111. Bui. 147) 



172 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



regularly as beef. Bacon is not difficult to digest and can 

be eaten by persons to whom other fats are intolerable. 

What to Serve with Ham or Pork. — White or sweet 

potatoes, squash, beets, greens, cauliflower, cabbage, apple 

sauce, fried apples, fritters or croquettes, all go well with 

pork dishes. 

APPLICATION 

1. Broiled Ham 

Method. — Soak thin slices of ham one hour in lukewarm 
water or milk. (Milk makes the ham more tender and 




Fig. 26. Pork: cuts of loin and bacon. 

juicy.) Drain and wipe dry and broil in a hot frying pan 
for 5 minutes. If cooked too long, ham is hard and dry. 

Boiled ham sliced about Yi mc h thick and broiled is very 
good, but more expensive. 

2. Liver and Bacon 

Method. — Cover slices of liver cut 3^ mcn thick with 
boiling water and let stand 5 minutes to draw out the blood ; 
drain, and remove the thin outside skin and veins. Cut 
in pieces for serving, sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge 



PROTEIN— PORK 



173 



with flour and cook in bacon fat. Use thin slices of bacon. 
Put in a hot frying pan and cook until bacon is crisp and 
brown, occasionally pouring off the fat from the pan. 
When crisp and an even brown, drain on paper and serve. 
Fried sliced apples are very good served with crisp bacon. 
(Basis, each a piece of liver and bacon.) 

3. Mustard (to serve with ham) 

2 hp. tsp. dry mustard Vinegar enough to thin 

1 hp. tsp. flour 1 hp. tsp. sugar 

14, n P- tsp. salt 

Method. — Mix thoroughly and pour boiling water on 
to it to make a paste; cover until cold, and then thin with 
vinegar. 

4. Pork Chops 

Method. — Wipe chops, sprinkle with salt and pepper, 
place in a hot frying pan, and cook slowly until tender 




Fig. 27. Pork: cuts from loin and ribs. 



and well browned on each side. Pork chops require about 
20 minutes for thorough cooking. 

A little freshly ground sage adds a nice flavor to pork 



174 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

6. Baked Ham 

Method. — Select a piece of ham about 4 or 5 pounds in 
weight. Soak several hours in cold water to draw out the 
salt. Place in baking pan and cover with a thick layer of 
brown sugar, with fine bread crumbs on top. Stick a few 
cloves in the ham and fill the pan with milk or cream to 
come two-thirds as high as the ham. Raisins may be put 
on the ham (stuck on with toothpicks), giving a very 
pleasing flavor. Bake, allowing J^ hour for each pound. 

6. Pigs in Blanket 

Method. — Select long, thin slices of bacon. Place 2 or 
3 ovsters in these, sprinkle with salt and pepper, close, and 
tie vith string or fasten together with toothpicks. Saute 
in a ikying pan until nicely browned. 

7. Fried Pork (salt) 

Method. — Cut fat salt pork in thin slices. Put enough 
hot watei over the slices to cover. Let stand a few min- 
utes, draii. and saute in a pan until crisp. It may be 
rolled in crumbs, egg, and crumbs again, and fried in deep 
fat. Serve w 'th salt fish, fried mush, or baked potatoes. 



LESSON 30 

POULTRY 

Selecting Poultry. — Spring chickens are those about 
five months old. A chicken over a year old is called a 
fowl. Poultry has a better flavor when full-grown than 
when too young. 

The bird should be short and plump in proportion to 
its weight. 

The skin should be clear and smooth, but not the smooth- 
ness due to scalding. 

The legs should be smooth; toes pliable. 

The end of the breast bone should bend readily; it 
should not be broken. There should be a large amount 
of meat on the breast. 

Pin feathers indicate a young bird ; long hairs and long 
sharp spurs, an old one. 

Old fowls usually have a large amount of fat, and the 
flesh has a purplish tinge. 

Dressing a Fowl. — All poultry should be dressed as 
soon as killed. The feathers come out easily when the 
fowl is warm and when stripped off towards the head. 
Remove the pin feathers with a knife, and singe the hairs 
by holding the bird over a gas burner or a lighted paper. 

Cut off the head and the feet. 

Turn down the skin of the neck and cut off the neck close 
to the body; remove the crop and the windpipe from the 
end of the neck rather than by a cut in the skin, which, 
if made, must be sewed up. 

Remove the tendons in the legs by pulling out carefully 
one at a time, taking pains not to tear the flesh. The leg 
of the fowl is more tender if the tendons are removed. 

(175) 



176 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Remove the oil bag in the tail. 

Make an incision near the vent, and loosen the fat 
from the body of the fowl. Loosen everything before 
drawing out, so as to avoid rupturing any part. Insert the 
hand carefully between the walls of the body and the 
entrails and draw the entrails out, using care not to break 
the gall bladder on the liver. Be sure the lungs and kidneys 
are all removed from the hollows of the backbone. Wash 
thoroughly, holding under a faucet to rinse the inside well. 




Fig. 28. Roast chicken, dressed for serving. 

To clean the giblets: Detach the heart, liver, and the 
gizzard. Cut through the thick muscle of the gizzard and 
peel it off slowly without breaking through the lining 
inside. Cut the heart open. Remove the gall bladder very 
carefully from the liver. Wash all thoroughly and let 
soak in salted water before cooking. 

To Stuff a Fowl. — Place the fowl in a bowl and stuff the 
neck until the breast is plump; then draw the skin over the 



POULTRY 177 

neck and sew it firmly. Fill the inside of the fowl with 
the stuffing, and sew up with a coarse thread, taking large 
stitches. 

To Truss a Fowl. — Draw the thighs close to the body, 
cover the legs over the tail, and tie firmly with twine. 
Fasten the wings to the body with skewers. 

To Cut up a Fowl. — Separate the legs from the body by 
cutting through the loose skin between the leg and the body, 
bend the leg over and cut through the joint. Pull out the 
tendons from the lower leg, or "drum stick." 

Cut off the tip of each wing. 

Separate the collar bone and the wishbone from the 
breast, and break the backbone just below the ribs. 

Separate the side bones from the back and also the breast. 

Always divide a fowl at the joints smoothly; never 
break the bones. 

Food Value. — The light meat of poultry is tender, but 
poorer in flavor than the leg, a difference similar to the loin 
and the round of beef. The muscle fibers in the breast 
are short, more open, and less used, which make the breast 
tender and more easily digested than the dark meat. Poul- 
try is not as rich in food value as beef, but is easily digested, 
very palatable, and especially suitable for the sick. 

What to Serve with Poultry. — White or sweet pota- 
toes, rice croquettes, celery, cucumbers, mushrooms, apple 
croquettes, cranberry jelly in molds, and either oysters or 
chestnut dressings are good to serve with poultry. With tur- 
key, chestnuts, oysters, or sausage are excellent for dressing. 

APPLICATION 
1. Roast Chicken 

Method. — Put dressed bird on a rack in the roaster, 

rub its entire surface with salt, and spread breast and legs 
—12 



178 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

with 3 tbsp. butter creamed with 2 tbsp. of flour. Dredge 

bottom of pan with flour. Roast in a hot oven, basting 

every 10 minutes until done. Use 34 cup melted butter 

in % cup boiling water for basting at first; later the fat 

in the pan may be used. Turn the bird frequently to 

brown evenly. If a thick crust is desired, dredge with 

flour a couple of times. When the breast meat is tender, 

the bird is done. A four-pound bird requires about lJ/£ 

hours for roasting. 

2. Stuffing 

1 c. cracker crumbs. J^ c. boiling water 

Y /i c. butter Salt and pepper 

Powdered sage 

Method. — Melt the butter, pour over the crumbs, add 

seasonings. 

3. Oyster Dressing 
3 c. stale bread crumbs Salt and pepper 

3^ c. butter, melted 1 pt. oysters 

Method. — Mix in the order given, adding the t>ysters 

cleaned and drained from their liquor. 

4. Fried Chicken 

Method. — Wipe each piece of chicken with a clean, dry 
cloth; dredge with salt, pepper, and flour. Put plenty of 
salt pork fat or lard and butter in the pan, and saute the 
chicken in the hot fat until brown and tender (about 30 
minutes). Only spring chicken ought to be fried, as old 
birds require longer cooking. 

5. Broiled Chicken 

Method. — Split a young chicken down the back. Break 
the joints, remove the breast bone, clean, and wipe with a 
dry cloth. Season with salt and pepper and rub well with 
soft butter. Put into a broiler or toaster and broil over 
a clear fire about 20 minutes. Spread with butter and serve 
hot. Garnish with parsley and lemon. 



POULTRY 179 

6. Fricasseed Chicken 

Method. — Cut and prepare the chicken as for frying. 

Cover with boiling water, and add 1 tbsp. of salt and a little 

pepper. Simmer 2 or 3 hours, or until tender. Reduce the 

water until about a pint remains. Remove all the large 

bones, dredge with flour, salt, and brown in hot fat. Strain 

the liquor from the chicken, remove the fat, add 1 cup of 

milk or cream to the' liquor, and reheat. Thicken with 2 

tablespoonfuls of flour, moistened with J/± cup milk; add 

to the liquor. When the gravy or sauce is cooked and 

thickened, add to the chicken. Serve with or without hot 

biscuits. 

7. Chicken Pie 

Method. — Chicken fricassee put in a baking dish and 
covered with a crust of pastry and baked, makes a chicken 
pie. 

8. Jellied Chicken 

Method. — Remove the skin and bones from a cooked 
chicken. Pick the meat apart and mix the light and dark 
meat. Remove the fat from the chicken liquor; season the 
liquor highly with salt and pepper and a little lemon juice. 
Cook down to about one cupful. Butter a mold and dec- 
orate the bottom and sides with slices of hard-boiled eggs. 
Pack the meat in solid and set away to cool for several hours. 
When ready to serve, dip the mold in warm water, turn out 
carefully. Garnish with celery tips and lemon. 



LESSON 31 

PROTEIN— GELATIN 

Source and Manufacture. — When the bones, connective 
tissue, hoofs, skin, etc., of animals are cooked a long time, 
much of the material becomes a jelly, and is called gelatin. 
Scraps of hide, horns, etc., are used in the same way to make 
glue, which is a crude form of gelatin. The purest and 
best gelatin is made from the air bladders of fish, especially 
sturgeon, and is called isinglass. 

Appearance. — Gelatin is transparent and tasteless. 
Commercial gelatin is in three forms, (1) granulated, (2) 
shredded, and (3) sheet. There are many kinds of each on 
the market. 

Food Value. — Although gelatin contains nitrogen and is 
classed as a protein, it is not a tissue-builder. The body 
uses it to produce energy, and as such is a great protein- 
sparer. By this we mean that it saves protein for tissue- 
building that might otherwise be consumed for heat and 
energy. It is one of the most easily digested of foods, and 
for this reason is very suitable to serve to the sick and con- 
valescent. 

Effects of Water on Gelatin. — 1. Gelatin does not 
dissolve in cold water; it only softens and swells. 

2. Gelatin dissolves in boiling water. 

3. Dissolved gelatin gets thick when cool. A solution 
as weak as 1 per cent will set. 

4. Gelatin will not thicken if boiled before cooling. 
Directions for Use. — 1. The ordinary proportion is 1 

oz. of gelatin to about 1 quart of liquid. In hot or cold 
weather, more is required. As served, then, the jelly does 



nam 



PROTEIN— GELATIN 181 

not usually contain over 3 per cent of gelatin. Granulated 
gelatin is more easily measured than either the shredded or 
the sheet form. A 2-oz. box holds 5 tablespoonfuls. Too 
much gelatin makes the jelly taste of it. 

2. When gelatin is well soaked, dissolve with boiling 
water, but do not boil or stir much. 

3. If fruit is used, more gelatin is needed. 

4. Add sugar to gelatin while the water is hot, to dis- 
solve the sugar. 

5. Add flavoring and fruit juice after gelatin is dissolved. 

6. Strain through a wet cloth or a fine strainer into a 
wet mold. - 

7. Put on ice or in a pan of ice water to stiffen. This 
takes from 3 to 5 hours. 

8. To vary the flavor and color, use different flavors; 
as, cinnamon, fruit, meat; or a good coloring, sparingly. 

9. To make jelly and fruit in layers, put a part of the 
gelatin with fruit into the mold, let stiffen, keeping remain- 
der warm in a pitcher set in warm water. Then make a 
second layer, and repeat until all the gelatin is used. 

10. To remove jelly from the mold, dip mold into, and 
immediately out of, hot water. Turn upon a serving dish. 

APPLICATION 
1. Lemon Jelly 

1 V 2 tbsp granulated gelatin Spk. salt 

M c. cold water 3^ c> s 

1 V 2 c. boiling water y 8 c . Iemon juice 

Method.— -Soak gelatin in cold water to soften (about 
5 minutes). Add the boiling water and the sugar and stir 
until dissolved. Add the flavoring or fruit juice. Strain 
through a wet cheesecloth or fine strainer into a cold, wet 
mold. Let stand in a pan of ice water to stiffen. 

{Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 



182 . DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

2. Orange Jelly 

2 tbsp. granulated gelatin % c. sugar 

34 c. cold water Spk. salt 

\}/2 c. boiling water }/2 c. orange juice 

2 tbsp. lemon juice 

Method. — Same as Lemon Jelly. 

3. Snow Pudding 

Use the Lemon Jelly rule. 

Method. — Beat white of 3 eggs until stiff and dry, and 

when the jelly begins to thicken add the beaten whites. 

Beat until the jelly is stiff and nearly firm; then pour it into 

a cold, wet mold or into custard cups. Serve with soft 

custard made from — 

2 c. scalded milk 4 tbsp. sugar 

2 eggs (yolks) Spk. salt 

}/2 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Beat yolks slightly, beating in the sugar and 
salt; add the hot milk, slowly stirring the mixture all the 
while. Pour into a double boiler and cook, stirring con- 
stantly, until the custard coats the spoon (about 5 minutes). 
Strain at once and add the vanilla. 

4. Tomato Jelly Salad 

1 can stewed and strained tomatoes 

1 tsp. salt 1 tsp. powdered sugar 

3 tbsp. gelatin 

Method. — Soak the gelatin 15 minutes in J/£ cup of cold 

water; add the tomato, sugar, and salt. Pour into small 

cups and chill. Turn the jelly out of the mold, place on 

lettuce leaves and garnish top of each with mayonnaise 

dressing. 

5. Pistachio Salad 

}/2 box gelatin Juice of 2 oranges and 1 lemon 

y /l c. cold water % c. sugar 

2 c. boiling water 3^ lb. walnuts 

4 c. celery 

Method. — Soak the gelatin in cold water; add boiling 

water and fruit juice, and color green with very little color- 



PRO TE IN— GEL A TIN 183 

ing; add the sugar and, when entirely dissolved, strain. Pour 
into molds, and when it begins to thicken add the nuts and 
celery. Serve as a garnish with meats or as a salad with 
cooked dressing. 

6. Meat Jellies 

Method. — Jellied veal or chicken is made by cooking the 
meat a long time, reducing the meat stock, removing the 
meat from the bone, and packing in a mold with the meat 
liquor. Enough gelatin is extracted to mold the meat with- 
out adding commercial gelatin. 

7. Junket 

% c. milk 14 junket tablet 

1 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. cold water 

34 tsp. vanilla Pinch of salt 

Method. — Dissolve the junket tablet in the cold water. 
Heat the milk until lukewarm, add the salt, sugar, vanilla 
and the junket-mixture. Pour quickly into small molds, 
let stand in a warm place until firm, then chill before 
serving. Remove from the molds, serve with cream. 

8. Caramel Junket 

Method. — Caramelize 2 tbsp. of sugar and add 2 tbsp. 
of boiling water. Boil together until reduced to 1 tbsp. 
Use in place of vanilla for flavoring in the above rule. 



LESSON 32. 

PROTEIN— MEAT SUBSTITUTES 

Food authorities agree that as a race the American 
people eat too much meat. 

To reduce the amount of meat in the diet and frequently 
substitute dishes consisting of vegetable protein or meat 
equivalents would give greater powers of endurance and 
prevent many ills. 

Protein is essential in the diet, but there are many 
different forms in which it may be served. Meat is the 
chief protein food on account of its high protein content 
together with its valuable mineral salts which give it rich 
flavor. Eggs and milk are also valuable protein foods, 
but are lacking in flavor. Meat substitute dishes, include 
any protein food which furnishes an equivalent amount of 
nourishment in the diet. Such foods include: milk, eggs, 
cheese, nuts, peas, beans, lentils, alone or in combination. 
Cheese and nuts are very concentrated foods, expensive, 
and are better served in combination with bread crumbs 
or rice, to avoid digestion disturbances and keep the food 
cost at a minimum. 

Form of Dishes. — Most meat substitute dishes consist 
of two or more foods in combination. They are usually 
served in the form of a loaf and steamed or baked and 
served with a white or tomato sauce, or prepared in a cas- 
serole, as a scalloped dish or souffle, or served together in 
a salad or cream soup. Left-over vegetables from dinner 
may form the basis for a meat substitute dish for the next 
day's lunch or dinner and not only serve to utilize econom- 
ically all bits of food, but go to make an attractive dish 
rich in food value. Dry bread, rolled fine and sifted may 

(184) 



PROTEIN— MEAT SUBSTITUTES 185 

be used on the top of many of the casserole dishes with bits 
of butter giving the dish a rich brown color when baked. 

1. Pea Souffle 

1 c. split dried peas or 1 tsp. salt 

1 c. canned peas 4 tbsp. milk 

4 egg whites 

Look over and wash the peas in cold water. Put in 
a kettle with cold water to cover and bring to a boil. Drain, 
cover with fresh boiling water and boil 1 hour. Press 
through a sieve, add the salt, pepper, and milk. Beat 
the egg whites stiff and fold into the pea mixture. Butter 
a baking dish, turn in the mixture and bake in a moderate 
oven 20 minutes. Serve as soon as removed from the oven. 

2. Peanut Butter Loaf 

1 c. peanut butter 2 tsp. salt 

1 c. mashed potatoes 2 tsp. grated onion 

1 ^gg Yl tsp. grated nutmeg 

2 tbsp. finely chopped parsley y% tsp. paprika 

To the hot mashed potatoes add the peanut butter, 
1 well beaten egg, parsley, onion, nutmeg, salt and paprika. 
Mix well. Put in a baking pan which has been brushed 
with butter and bake in a hot oven from 35 to 40 minutes. 

3. Lima-Bean Loaf with Bacon 

}/i lb. thinly sliced bacon 1 tbsp. grated onion 

3 c. lima beans 1 tbsp. parsley 

1 tsp. salt 1 egg 

Ys tsp. pepper 2 tbsp. egg crumbs 

1 c. cream sauce 

Wash and soak the beans over night; drain; cover with 
boiling water; cook until tender; drain, and mash through 
a coarse strainer; add seasonings, egg well beaten and cream 
sauce. Keep 1 teaspoon of beaten egg for top of loaf. 
Mix all together. Brush a baking pan with drippings, fill 
with the mixture, brush top with beaten egg and sprinkle 
with bread crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven 40 minutes. 
Turn out on a platter and garnish with bacon curls and 
parsley. 



186 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

4. Scalloped Corn 

1 can corn Spk. pepper 

1 c. milk 2 tsp. sugar 

2 tbsp. flour 1 c. bread crumbs (stale) 
2 tbsp. butter M c. melted butter 

1 tsp. salt 

Method. — Make a white sauce of the milk, flour, butter, 
salt, and pepper, and add the corn and sugar. Cover the 
bottom of a buttered baking dish with a layer of corn and 
sprinkle heavily with buttered crumbs. Repeat until the 
dish is full. Add buttered crumbs and grated cheese to 
top, and bake until nicely browned (about 20 or 30 

minutes). 

(Basis for 2, % rule.) 

5. Salmon Souffle 

2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour 

1 c. .milk 1 c. salmon 

4 eggs y s tsp. salt 

Method. — Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, 
milk, and salt. Add the salmon (minced), with bones and 
skin removed. Remove from the fire and add the well- 
beaten egg yolks. Cool, and fold in the stiffly beaten 
whites. Pour into a buttered baking dish or into custard 
cups; set in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven 
for 20 minutes — a little longer when baked in a large dish. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

6. Cheese Souffle 

(Recipe and method are given under Lesson 12.) 



Domestic Science Principles and 
Application 



SECOND YEAR 



SECOND YEAR 



LESSON 1 



% 






PRESERVATION OF FOOD— CANNING FRUITS 

Preservation as applied to food is the process of pre- 
venting decomposition, which is caused by the presence of 
bacteria. 

Bacteria are single-celled forms of plant life so small as 
to be seen only by the aid of a powerful microscope. Al- 
though they are so tiny, they increase in number so rapidly 
where they have plenty of food, 
moisture, and warmth, that 
they are able to cause extensive 
changes, especially in foods. 

It is believed that there are 
as many kinds of bacteria as 
there are kinds of other plants, 
and they are found everywhere, 
in the dust of the air, in soil, 
water, and food. 

During the absence of proper 
conditions for their growth they 
are inactive and often remain so for several months or 
years, but spring into life when brought again into the right 
conditions. 

All bacteria, however, are not harmful, and some are of 
great use to us. Common products that owe their flavor 
largely to the work of bacteria are butter, cheese, and 
vinegar. The action of bacteria is very useful in the pro- 
duction of linen, hemp, liquors, and many other products. 

(180) 



<?< 



9 C 




^ 



Fig. 29. Bacteria (greatly en- 
larged): a, rod-shaped, showing 
spores; b, spherical; c, typical lac- 
tic-acid bacteria; d, bacteria with 
hairlike appendages, with which 
they swim about in water or milk. 



190 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

If there were no such thing as decay, the surface of the 
earth would soon become loaded with useless vegetable 
and animal matter. Bacteria feed upon this material and 
reduce it finally to substances available to plants as food, 
and it again becomes living matter. 

Reasons for Preserving Food. — People of no other age 
lived so well as the average live today. One great reason is 
the abundance and variety of food, made possible largely 
by methods of preservation. Advantages of food preserva- 
tion are: — 

1. To insure clean, wholesome food, free from bacteria. 

2. To enable us to have food out of season. 

3. To afford us economy by making it possible to 
purchase food when it is best and cheapest, rather than 
when it is scarce, expensive, and inferior in quality. 

4. To permit of transportation from one part of the 
country to another or from one country to another. Thus 
we have the use of foods not grown at home. 

METHODS OF PRESERVING FOOD 

Food is preserved by producing conditions unfavorable 
to the growth of bacteria in it and which destroy their 
effects. This is accomplished (1) by applying either a 
high or low temperature, (2) by drying, (3) by adding 
preservatives. 

Refrigeration is preservation by holding food at a low 
temperature. Freezing and cold storage are means of 
keeping food for long periods; cellars and ice boxes, for 
short periods. 

Freezing or packing in dry snow or ice checks the growth 
of bacteria as long as the food is in a frozen condition. 
Food deteriorates quickly after thawing out, and should be 
used immediately. Meat and fish are most commonly frozen. 



CANNING FRUIT 191 

Cold storage, or keeping food in cold, dry storerooms 
artificially cooled to just above the freezing point, preserves 
food. Eggs, fruit, vegetables, butter, and meat are kept 
very extensively and for considerable periods in cold- 
storage plants. Cellars and ice boxes are cold-storage 
devices for homes. 

Canning, or sealing sterilized food in air-tight sterilized 
jars, is a common household method of food preservation. 
Boiling for 20 minutes will generally kill most forms of 
bacteria. Fruits, vegetables, and meats are preserved by 
canning. 

Removal of Moisture. — Bacteria require considerable 
moisture in a material in order to grow in it. Drying a 
food, therefore, preserves it from decay. Flour, crack- 
ers, cereals, and many other foods do not spoil because 
they are dry. Fish, fruits, berries, and beef are other 
familiar examples of this preserving principle. Dried 
foods must be kept in a dry place so as to prevent the ab- 
sorption of sufficient moisture to give the germs of decay 
on or in them a chance to grow. 

The excluding of air also aids in preserving some food 
products. This is accomplished in the case of eggs by 
coating with paraffin or vaseline or putting them in water 
glass; likewise grapes are packed in cork. 

Preservatives. — Antiseptics are materials that do not 
kill bacteria but which retard or prevent their growth. 
Those used to preserve food should be harmless to the body. 
Common examples of these are: — 

Sugar. — Bacteria cannot grow in a food containing a 
large proportion of sugar. Jelly, marmalade, and preserves 
keep well for this reason. Raisins, dates, figs, and candied 
fruits are other examples. Condensed milk is preserved 
by the addition of 30 or 40 per cent of sugar. 



191 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Salt. — Salt prevents bacterial growth in much the same 
way as sugar, and it also takes up moisture. Common 
foods salted are fat pork, beef, fish, hams, and bacon. Salt 
in butter and cheese makes them keep better. 

Acids. — Acids protect food from bacteria and give new 
flavors. Vinegar (acetic acid) is used in making pickles, 
and lactic and acetic acids that develop in sauerkraut act 
as preservatives. 

Spices are antiseptic and are another common means of 
preventing the action of bacteria on food. Spices are 
used in mincemeat for flavor and at the same time they 
help to preserve it. Sage and spice used in sausage and 
spice in fruit cake perform the same functions. 

Smoke. — Meats and fish are often preserved and flavored 
by smoking, combined with the salting and drying that 
accompany the process. It must be remembered, however, 
that the smoke does not penetrate deeply into the flesh, 
but is merely a protective covering, so that any bacteria 
or parasites within are not killed. Smoked meat is unsafe 
to eat without thorough cooking. 

Harmful Preservatives. — Other substances often used 
as preservatives are borax, boracic acid, salicylic acid and 
formalin. In small quantities these preservatives have 
been found to be quite harmless; yet their use in manu- 
factured foods has been made illegal in many states, in- 
asmuch as the amount a person may eat cannot be con- 
trolled. 

Sterilization of anything is the process of destroying 
all germs and molds in or on it, and anything that has 
undergone this process and is free from life is sterilized. 

CANNING 

The Primary Principle in Canning. — The central point 
in canning is to sterilize by heat the food and everything 



CANNING FRUIT 



19* 



that comes in contact with it, and then to keep it sterile. 
Bacteria increase in number so amazingly fast that if a 
single germ withstands the heat or gets into the food after 
it has cooled, the contents of the jar will spoil in a few days. 
The jars must be sealed while hot, to insure that all enclosed 
air will be sterilized and to insure a perfect seal on cooling. 
Most failures in canning are due to insufficient heat 
applied or to neglect in using utensils not freed from germs. 
Avoid the raising of dust in the room while canning is 
being done. 

Jars for Canning.— There are many kinds of fruit jars 
on the market. The best jar is that which is strong and 




Fig. 30. Jars for canning: a, spring top; 6, jar with metal lacquered top: c. 
improved Mason; d. Mason. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) 

simple in construction, which has a wide mouth, and which 
protects the contained food against contact with metal. 
The type that seems to give the most general satisfaction 
has a glass cover clamped on with a spring device, as in 
Fig. 30. Use glass jars, never tin. Jars having a wide 
mouth are the best for large fruits, for it is easier to arrange 
the contents to better advantage. 

Be sure the cans and tops are perfect and fit closely, to 
insure an air-tight seal. By fitting jars and tops together 
be fore putting in the fruit no time is lQst in sealing. 



194 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

To Sterilize Jars. — Wash the jars and tops and submerge 
them in a pan of cold water, jars full of water; bring 
slowly to a boil and boil 10 minutes. Do this just before 
filling. 

Rubbers should not be boiled but should be dipped into 
boiling water just before putting them on the jars. Tops 
with the rubbers on them must be treated in the same way. 
These tops and all rubbers can safely be used but once. 

Selection of Fruit. — Buy only fresh, firm fruit of good 
quality and not too ripe. Overripe fruit may contain 
some bacteria that will not be killed by boiling, causing 
fermentation after the fruit is set away. Buy fruit in 
season when prices are best. 

Proportion of Sugar and Water for Sirup. — Use 3 quarts 
of sugar to 2 quarts of water. The various densities are 
gained by shorter or longer boiling. 

Thin sirup is sugar and water boiled so that all the 
sugar is dissolved, but the sirup is not sticky. 

Medium thin sirup is that which has begun to thicken 
and is sticky when cooled on the finger or spoon. 

Medium thick sirup will pile up on the edge of the spoon 
when poured out. 

General Methods of Canning Fruit. — There are two 
methods of canning fruit: (1) Cooking fruit in a sirup in a 
saucepan and then sealing in jars; (2) cooking by baking 
or steaming in the jars with a sirup. The latter method 
keeps the fruit whole and is especially suitable for berries. 

Method 1. Cooking Fruit in a Sirup. — 1 . Boil the sugar 
and water together 5 or 10 minutes, making a thin sirup. 
Put in the fruit and cook until tender. Cooking a small 
amount at a time preserves the shape of the fruit. 

2. When fruit is tender, set the empty jar from the 
boiling water into a pan containing a little hot water, or 



CANNING FRVIT 



195 



on a wet, hot cloth. This keeps the jar hot and avoids the 
danger of its breaking. 

3. Put a new sterilized rubber on the jar. Pack the 
fruit in carefully, arranging it to look well, and fill the jar 
to overflowing with the hot sirup. Put on the sterilized 
top and screw down tight. 

4. See that no fruit around the edge prevents an air- 
tight seal. Set each jar upside down on a board away 
from any draft and let stand over night. 




Fig. 31. Canned fruit, labeled and ready for storing. 

5. On the following day wipe off the jars, see that each 
is perfectly sealed, and label. Store them in a dark closet. 
If any jar is not perfectly sealed, open it, boil the fruit, and 
recan as before. 

Method 2. Cooking Fruit Whole in Jars. — Clean fruit 
and pack neatly and closely into the sterilized jars. Fill 
jars to the top with sirup made as in Method 1. Adjust 
tops and partially seal. 

Baking. — Set the jars in a pan containing an inch or 
two of hot water. Set the pan with the jars in a hot oven 
and bake 20 or 30 minutes, or until hot all through and 
bubbles rise in the jars. 

Cold-packing, or Steaming. — Set the filled jars on a rack 
in a boiler containing hot water to cover the jars. Cover 



196 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the boiler and when the water in the boiler begins to boil 
count the time and cook, or process, according to the time 
given in the table under application. At the end of the 
time remove the jars carefully, tighten the covers to make 
a perfect seal, and invert the jars for several hours to cool. 
Examine and seal before storing fruit away. 

APPLICATION 
1. Canned Peaches 

Method. — Wipe peaches and put in boiling water, 
allowing them to stand just long enough to loosen the 
skins. Remove the skins and either cook fruit at once, 
that it may not discolor, or drop into cold water. Make a 
sirup in the proportion of 1 pint of sugar to 1 pint of water 
and bring to a boil in a preserving kettle. Put fruit in and 
cook 10 or 15 minutes or until tender. Bring to a full boil 
and then fill jars according to previous directions. The 
fruit may be cut in halves and a few of the stones put into 
the sirup for flavor. 

One section of the class may can according to Method 
1 and the other section may follow Method 2. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 1 can.) 

2. Canned Pears 

Method. — Wash and pare the fruit. Cook whole with or 
without stems; or, remove stems, cut in quarters or halves, 
and core. Put at once into cold water. Make a sirup of 
1 pint of sugar to 2 pints of water, bring to a boil, drain the 
pears and place in the sirup. Boil until tender. Place 
each piece separately in the jar with a fork; then cover 
brim full with the boiling sirup, and seal. Bartlett pears 
are best for canning. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 1 can.) 



CANNING FRUIT 



197 



3. Canned Plums 

Method— Wash the plums and prick them to prevent 
bursting. Add the plums to the sirup (1 cupful sugar to 
2 cupfuls water), cook until tender, and can according to 
Method 1. 

4. Canned Strawberries 

Method.— Select highly-colored, clean berries. To 10 
pounds of berries add 3 to 5 pounds of sugar. Place berries 
in a preserving kettle and mix in the sugar thoroughly. 
Allow them to stand 5 to 10 hours, until the juice begins 
to run into the sugar. Place the kettle and contents on 
the stove and bring to a boil. Simmer 15 minutes, keeping 
the berries beneath the sirup with a spoon and removing 
scum that rises. Place in jar and seal. 

Note.— Blackberries and raspberries may be canned 
the same as strawberries. Use 23^ pounds of sugar for 
10 pounds of berries. Berries may also be canned accord- 
ing to the baking or steaming method. 

Time-Table for Canning Fruit by Cold-Pack, or Steaming, Method. 



Fruit 



Apples 

Apricots 

Blackberries 

Cherries 

Fruit juices 

Grapes, plums. . . 

Huckleberries 

Peaches 

Pears 

Pineapples 

Quinces 

Raspberries 

Strawberries 



Preparation 



Peel, core, cut up. 
Peel, core, cut up. 
Pick over, wash . . . 
Wash, stem, pit. . . 



Time of 
Blanch- 
ing 

Minutes 



Wash, stem 

Clean 

Blanch, peel, stone. 
Blanch, peel, core.. 

Peel, slice 

Peel, core, cut up. . 

Pick over 

Pick over 



Kind of 
Sirup 



Medium 
Medium 
Medium 
Med. thick 



Time of Cooking 



Water- 
bath 
Outfit 

Minutes 



Med. thick 

Med. thick 

Medium 

Thin 

Thin 

Thin 

Thin 

Thin 



20 — 30 

16 

16 

16 

20 

16 

16 

16 

20 

60 

60 

16 

16 



Pressure 
Cooker 



Min. Lbs. 



10—5 
10— 5 

6—5 
10—5 
10—5 
10—5 

8—5 
10—5 
10—5 
40—5 
40—5 

8—8 
10—5 



LESSON 2 

PRESERVATION OF FOOD—CANNING VEGETABLES 

Vegetables, except tomatoes, are more difficult than 
fruit to can successfully, because they are harder to steri- 
lize. They contain much hard cellulose fiber, requiring 
longer cooking, and the spores (seeds) of certain bacteria, 
which resist ordinary boiling, are also usually present. 

Nevertheless peas, beans, asparagus, and corn may be 
easily canned in the school and the home if the correct 
method is followed. 

Sterilizing by Intermittent Cooking. — As we have 
learned, some bacteria are able to form spores, which are 
like seeds, that are not killed by ordinary boiling. Soon 
after the food has cooled, these spores germinate, when 
they may be killed easily by heating. A second cooling 
and a third heating will render the vegetable or fruit 
absolutely sterile. 

Selection and Preparation of Vegetables. — Select only 
sound, fresh, young and tender vegetables. If possible 
can vegetables on the day they are picked. 

Pare, peel, or scrape, as the kind of vegetable requires. 
Remove all bruised or decayed parts. 

If the vegetable is likely to discolor after being pared, 
cover with cold water until ready to use; if very large, cut 
into convenient size to can. 

General Method of Canning Vegetables. — 1. Pack the 
vegetables firmly into the jars to within half an inch of the 
top. Arrange in a manner to utilize the space well and to 
present a good appearance. 

(108) 



CANNING VEGETABLES 199 

2. Add salt to the vegetables, allowing H to 1 tea- 
spoonful to each quart. If sugar is desired, as in beets and 
peas, add 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls to each quart. Then fill 
jars to overflowing with clean, cold water. 

3. Place the tops on the jars lightly, but do not seal. 
Place the jars on a wooden rack or other support in the 
bottom of a boiler. 

4. Pour water into the boiler to a depth of 3 or more 
inches. Put on the cover and boil for 15 or 20 minutes. 

5. Remove the boiler cover, seal the jars, cover again 
and boil for about 45 minutes; then set aside out of a draft 
in a warm room. 

6. On the second day, return the jars to the boiler 
prepared as before and, without loosening the seals of the 
jars, bring the water to the boiling point and boil again 
about 60 minutes. Remove the jars and let stand as before. 

7. On the third day, cook as on the previous day, 60 
minutes. Then remove jars from the boiler, allow to cool, 
wipe off, label, and set away. 

The Cold Pack, single period method of canning is now 
used largely by home and school canning clubs. The 
steps involved in the cold pack method are, (1) blanching, 
(2) cold dipping, (3) peeling, (4) packing and (5) process- 
ing. The blanching and cold dipping of the product takes 
the place of intermittent cooking. 

Blanching is the process of plunging the food product 
into boiling water. This eliminates objectionable acids and 
reduces the large bulk of the food. Vegetables are more 
easily handled in a wire basket or cheese cloth square. 
Plunge the whole into the boiling water and allow to re- 
main from one to three minutes or until the skins begin to 
loosen. 



200 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Cold dipping consists in putting the basket containing 
the vegetables directly from the boiling water into cold 
water. This hardens the pulp under the skin, makes the 
removal of the skins easier and brings the coloring matter 
to the surface. 

Peeling the vegetables should then follow. This 
should be done with a sharp knife quickly and carefully 
and they should be packed immediately into sterilized 
jars. Fill the jars full of vegetables; add hot water to 
make the jar brim full; add salt in the proportion of 
one teaspoonful to a quart jar, and partially seal the jar. 

Processing consists in sterilizing the jars of vegetables 
in a hot water bath outfit according to the time given in 
the table for each kind of vegetable. At the end of the 
time given for processing, remove the jars, complete the 
seal and cool quickly. Examine carefully before putting 
jars away to make sure the seal is tight and that the ma- 
terial canned is in perfect condition. 

Hot water bath outfits can be made from any wash 
boiler, galvanized vat, large kettle or other vessel with 
an air tight cover by adding a false bottom with handles 
for removal of the jars. 

Commercial outfits for the sterilization of food products 
consist of several kinds: (1) The hot water bath outfits, 
made for out-of-door use on a large scale; (2) water seal 
outfits, having an inner seal and jacket which maintains 
a higher temperature than the water bath; (3) steam pres- 
sure outfits made of steel, iron, or heavy tin. These carry 
from 5 to 30 pounds steam pressure and can be regulated 
to maintain different temperatures. (4) Aluminum pres- 
sure cookers made entirely of aluminum. These transmit 
heat quickly and carry 30 pounds of steam pressure. They 
are the most expensive, but are especially good for canning 



CANNING VEGETABLES 



201 



smaller quantities at one time. Fruits, vegetables, meats, 
soups and stews can all be successfully preserved with 
little work with this cooker. 

APPLICATION 

Canning vegetables by both the intermittent and the 
cold pack methods according to the following tables. 

CANNING VEGETABLES 

INTERMITTENT METHOD 



Vegetable 


Preparation 


Cook out 
of jars 


Cook in 
jars with 
out cover 


Cover and Cook 
First Second Third 
day day day 


Asparagus 

Beans — string. . 
Beans — Lima. . 


Wash: grade to size. . 




15 min. 
20 min. 
15 min. 
15 min. 
15 min. 
45 min. 

15 min. 
15 min. 


45 min. 
60 min. 
60 min. 
45 min. 
45 min. 
50 min. 

45 min. 
45 min. 


60 min. 
60 min. 
60 min. 
60 min. 
60 min. 
60 min. 

60 min. 
60 min. 


60 min. 


String: wash thoroly. 
Wash 


15 min. 
15 min. 
15 min. 
15 min. 
20 min. 

15 min. 
15 min. 


60 min. 
60 min. 


Beets 


Wash 


60 min. 


Corn 


Cut grains off cob . . . 

Select young: sort to 

size 


60 min. 
60 min. 


Peas 






60 min. 






60 min. 



COLD PACK METHOD 



Vegetable 


Preparation 


Blanch 
Min. 


Time 

Water- 
bath 
outfit 
Min. 


for Co( 

Water 
seal 
Min. 


Dking 
Steam 
pres- 
sure 
Min. 
Lbs. 


Alumi- 
num 
cooker 
Min. 
Lbs. 




Clean: sort 


3- 4 
3- 5 
3- 5 
3- 4 

Cook 

% done 
5-15 
5-15 
2- 5 
2- 5 
10 

Pack in 


90 
120 
120 

90 

90 
180 
180 
120 
120 

90 
jars. 
120 

22 
90 


60 
90 
90 

75 

75 
90 
90 
90 
90 
75 
Fill wi 
75 

18 

75 


50 5 
60 5 
60 5 
60 5 

60 5 
60 5 
60 5 
60 5 
60 5 
60 5 
th cold 
60 5 

15 5 
60 5 


25 15 


Beans — string. . 


String: grade 


40 20 


Beans — Lima. . 


Clean: grade 


40 20 


Beets 


Scrape 


35 20 


Carrots 




Corn off cob . . . 
Corn on cob. . . 


Husk grade 


35 20 
35 20 
35 20 


Okra 


Wash well 


40 20 


Peas 


40 20 




40 20 


Soup mixtures . 


Fill cans 


water. 
40 20 




Grade: use no water 

Pack cans full 


1- 3 

30 


10 20 




Peel: cut in pieces 


40 20 



LESSON 3 

PRESERVATION OF FOOD— MAKING JELLIES, MAR- 
MALADES, and CONSERVES 

Jellies, preserves, marmalades, and conserves are made 
by cooking fruit juice or entire fruit with an abundance of 
sugar, which acts as a preservative. 

JELLIES 

The ideal jelly is well colored, well flavored, transparent, 
tender, holds its shape when turned from the glass, and 
is not gummy or sticky. 

Composition of Fruit Juice. — Fruit juice consists largely 
of water in which are dissolved small amounts of sugar, 
flavoring material, vegetable acids, and pectin. 

Pectin is the essential substance for jelly-making. If 
this is not present in a fruit juice it is impossible to make 
jelly from it. Pectin is a carbohydrate similar to starch 
in its nature and, like starch, is dissolved in boiling water. 
It exists in small quantities in raw fruits, the amounts vary- 
ing with different varieties. Cooking causes the pectin 
to take on water, which increases it in amount and gives it 
the jelly-making properties. Overripe fruits do not con- 
tain enough pectin to jell, for the ripening process changes 
it to a form of sugar. Fruit not quite ripe is usually best. 

Test for Pectin. — Add two tablespoonfuls of alcohol to 
the same amount of hot fruit juice. If the mixture becomes 
thick, like gelatin, pectin is present. 

Fruits rich in pectin are currant, grape, apple, plum, 
raspberry, blackberry, cranberry, quince, pear, and peach. 
The white skin of the orange and grapefruit also contain it. 

(202) 



JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 



203 



Vegetable acids are also necessary in fruit juices for jelly, 
making, and give flavor to the jelly. Many fruits are 
deficient in acid; for example, quince, peaches, sweet apples, 
and pears. In order tomakegood jelly from these juices, sour 
apple juice or some fruit juice rich in. acid should be used 
as a basis. Combining fruit juices in this way supplies 
both pectin and acid where they are deficient, and many 
pleasing flavors and combinations may be made with a 
little care and practice. 

Utensils for Jelly-Making.— Use a granite or porcelain 
kettle; a large wooden or enamel spoon for stirring; a 
pointed bag made of Canton flannel, cheesecloth, or old 
damask through which to strain the jelly; an enamel pitcher 
or cup for filling glasses; sterilized jelly glasses; and a 
silver spoon for testing the jelly. 

Extracting Fruit Juices.— 1. Select sound fruit that is 
not overripe. Pick over, wash until thoroughly clean and 
free from sand and dirt. Cut up large fruits. 

2. Put in the preserving kettle and if the fruit is very 
juicy add just enough water to prevent burning, about 
1 cup to every 4 quarts of fruit. If the fruit is not juicy, 
add water to nearly cover the fruit. 

3. Cover the kettle and cook slowly, stirring occasion- 
ally. When it simmers, crush the fruit with a potato 
masher; cook until the fruit is thoroughly cooked and the 
juices run freely. 

4. Dip the jelly bag into boiling water to sterilize it 
and wring out quite dry. Suspend the jelly bag on a pole 
over a bowl or jar, pour in the hot fruit, and let drain until 
all the juice is well extracted. This usually takes from 12 
to 20 hours. Do not squeeze the bag, for this will force 
out pulp and make the jelly cloudy. 



204 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

5. When well drained, return the pulp to the preserving 
kettle, cover with water, stir until well mixed, cover and 
bring slowly to a boil as before; then drain again into 
another jar. By testing the juice with alcohol the amount 
of pectin present may be ascertained. 

6. Sometimes a third extraction of juice is possible. 
Do not mix the juice from the first cooking with that of the 
second or third. 

Proportion of Fruit Juice and Sugar. — A correct propor- 
tion of sugar to juice is necessary; not enough sugar makes 
a tough jelly, and too much produces a soft jelly and may 
form crystals. For most juices rich in pectin and acid, 1 
cup of sugar to 1 cup of juice is used; currants and grapes 
demand this proportion. 

Some fruits; as, crab apple, sour apples, cranberries, and 
raspberries, require less sugar, and the proportion of % CU P 
of sugar to 1 cup of juice is usually correct. 

If fruits contain a large amount of water and the pectin 
test shows a small amount of pectin, use less sugar. For 
the second and third extractions, which contain more water 
than the first, the juice should be boiled down quickly until 
the pectin test shows up clear, when the usual proportion of 
sugar may be used. This jelly should be as clear as that 
from the first extraction. 

Making the Jelly. — Measure out the sugar into a granite 
pan and put into the oven to heat. Leave the oven door 
open and stir the sugar occasionally to prevent burning. 

Pour the fruit juice into the preserving kettle and bring 
to a boil. Too long boiling destroys the gelatinizing power 
of the pectin and may also cause crystals of sugar to form 
in the jelly after it stands. The time necessary for boiling 
varies with the proportionate amounts of sugar and pectin 



JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 



205 



in the juice. Where much sugar is used, less time is taken, 
and thin juice deficient in pectin requires longer cooking. 
Remove carefully all the scum that rises to the top of 
the boiling juice and from around the edges of the kettle. 
After the juice has boiled 10 to 12 minutes add the 
hot sugar slowly, stir occasionally to prevent burning, and 
continue the boiling until the test shows sufficient cooking 
to "jell" the mixture. 

Test for Jelly — Take up a small amount of the hot 
mixture in a cold, silver tablespoon and drop it from the 
spoon. If the mixture "jells" and breaks from the spoon, 
it has been cooked enough. Remove from the fire at once. 
Filling Glasses. — Sterilize jelly glasses in the same 
manner as fruit jars, and when the jelly is ready set the 
glasses in a pan containing a little hot water, to keep them 
from breaking when the 
hot jelly is poured in. 
With a cup or pitcher fill 
each glass to within a half 
inch of the top. 

Let the jelly stand in 
a sunny place several 
hours to set. Then, to 
exclude molds, cover with 
hot paraffin, with circles 
of white paper cut to fit the glasses and dipped in slightly 
beaten egg white and water or alcohol, or with hot tin 
covers. Wipe off the glasses with a damp cloth, label each, 
indicating the kind of jelly and the date, and set away in a 
cool, dry place. 

Causes of Poor Jelly. — Failure may be due to one or 
more of a number of causes, which must be discovered by 
tests. 




Fig. 32. Jelly, properly sealed and labeled. 



206 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The following are the important causes: — 

1. Fruit juice contained too little pectin or not enough 
acid. 

2. Too much or too little sugar may have been used. 
The error is usually on the side of too much. 

3. The jelly may have been boiled too long or not 
enough. 

PRESERVES, JAMS, AND MARMALADE 

Preserves, jam, and marmalade are made from the fruit 
pulp and juice cooked thick with from % to its whole weight 
of sugar. 

Fruits most used are strawberries, raspberries, black- 
berries, rhubarb, grapes, oranges, peaches, and quince or 
big plums. 

A conserve is a preserve made from a mixture of fruits 
with or without the addition of some other material, such 
as nuts. 

General Method. — 1. Pick over the fruit, wash and 
weigh. Cut large fruit into quarters or smaller pieces and 
crush the berries and grapes. Put in a preserving kettle 
with enough water to keep from burning, — about J4 CU P 
to each quart of fruit. Cook slowly until the fruit is soft 
and the juices run. 

2. Remove the seeds from grapes and some berries by 
rubbing the mixture through a sieve; then return to the 
fire and add an equal weight of hot sugar slowly. Stir the 
mixture constantly to prevent burning, and cook until it 
"jells" on the spoon or becomes thick. 

3. Turn out into hot sterilized glasses, let stand aday or 
two. and then seal and put away the same as jelly. 



JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES IVt 

APPLICATION 

1. Currant Jelly 

Method.— Pick over the currants, but do not remove 
the stems; wash and drain. Mash a few in the bottom of a 
preserving kettle, using a potato-masher. Add more cur- 
rants and mash and continue adding currants until all are 
used. Bring to a boil slowly and let simmer until the cur- 
rants appear white. Strain through a coarse strainer and 
allow the juice to drain through a jelly bag. Measure the 
juice, bring to the boiling point and boil 5 minutes. Add 
an equal measure of heated sugar and boil until a good jelly 
test is obtained; then pour into glasses. 

(Basis for 4 girls, % cupful juice.) 

2. Apple Jelly 

Method.— Wash the apples and remove the stems and 
the dark spots. Cut into fourths, but do not core or pare. 
Add just enough water to cover the apples and cook until 
the fruit is soft and crushed. Drain through a jelly bag. 
The pulp that remains may be put through a colander with 
more fruit for flavoring and used for jams. For the jelly, 
xneasure the juice and add an equal amount of sugar. 
Boil the juice for 20 minutes (for a large amount), remove 
the scum, and add the heated sugar. Boil about 5 minutes 
or until the jelly test shows the mixture will jelly. Pour into 
hot sterilized glasses and seal when cold. 

{Basis for 4 girls, % cupful juice.) 

3. Orange Marmalade 
9 oranges 4 qts. water 

6 lemons Same weight of sugar as fruit 

Method. — Slice as thin as possible the oranges and the 
lemons crosswise with a sharp knife; remove the seeds and 
put fruit into a preserving kettle with the water. Cover 
and let stand for 36 hours and then boil for 2 hours. Meas- 



208 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

ure the cooked fruit and add an equal amount of sugar. 
Cook until the mixture jellies. Jar, and seal when cold. 

4. Big Plum Conserve 
1 basket big plums 3 oranges, rind of one 

Sugar, % weight of plums % lb. shredded almonds 

Method. — Cut the plums into halves and remove the 
stones. Cook the plums, oranges, and the sugar for 45 
minutes. Blanch the almonds and cut them several 
times lengthwise. Add the almonds to the fruit mixture 
and cook 10 minutes longer. Put into sterile glasses and 
seal when cold like jelly. This amount makes 13 glasses. 

5. Spiced Grapes 

7 lbs. fruit 3^ lbs. sugar 

1 c. strong vinegar 2 oz. cinnamon 

1 c. grape juice 1 oz. cloves 

Method. — Press pulp out of grapes. Boil the pulp 
until tender and then pass it through a colander to remove 
the seeds. Mix the skins with the pulp. Boil all until 
thick like marmalade. When done turn into glasses and 
seal. Good to serve with meats. 

6. Raspberry Jam 

3 qts. raspberries 1 qt. currant juice 

3 lbs. sugar 

Method. — Cook berries with the juice and half of the 
sugar 20 minutes. Add the rest of the sugar and cook about 
25 minutes longer. Stir constantly to keep from burning. 
Put in jelly glasses and seal when cold. Adding the sugar 
slowly prevents the fruit from getting hard. 

7. Plum and Apple Jelly 
Method. — Use equal parts of plum and apple juice. 

8. Quince and Apple 
Method. — Use 34 as much quince as apple juice. 



JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 209 

9. Apple and Raspberry 

Method. — Flavor apple jelly with raspberry by using 
J/g as much raspberry as apple juice. 

10. Grape Fudge 

7 lbs. grapes 7 lbs. sugar 

1 lb. walnuts 1 lb. raisins 

Method. — Wash the grapes and remove the pulp. Cook 
the pulp and remove the seeds by putting through a sieve. 
Chop skins and nuts, mix pulp and sugar, add the chopped 
portions and whole raisins. Cook until thick and seal in 
sterilized glasses. This amount makes 22 glasses. 



— i<* 



LESSON 4 

PRESERVATION OF FOOD— PICKLING. 
CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 

Pickles are eaten largely for their pleasing flavor, and 
are to be classed as condiments rather than as true food. 

Condiments and Spices. — Whatever is eaten to whet 
the appetite and stimulate the flow of digestive juices is 
known as a condiment. Horseradish and mustard are good 
examples. Condiments are for the most part aromatic 
fruits, seeds, or leaves that have a high flavor due to vola- 
tile oils. These oils lose their strength during cooking. 
Besides the two named, pepper (black, white, cayenne), 
mint, thyme, sage, dill, capers, chives, garlic and parsley 
are those usually added to meats and soups. 

Spices are condimental in nature and are used to season 
foods, especially those containing sugar. Common spices 
are ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, allspice, 
caraway, pepper, peppermint, and angelica. They are 
used whole, ground, or in the extract. 

It is much better for young persons, as well as for older 
ones, if they eat sparingly of highly-seasoned food. The 
continued use of condiments creates a habit for them and 
leaves no relish for natural flavors, which are more delicate 
and more satisfying. 

Salt is a food, since a certain amount is needed in the 
formation of gastric juice. In the amounts in which it is 
commonly eaten, however, it is a condiment. In concen- 
trated solutions it becomes a preservative. 

Vinegar is a condiment in the diet and is a familiar 
preservative. It is dilute acetic acid, made by fermenting 

(210) 



PICKLING 211 

weak alcoholic solutions like hard cider, wine, and malt. 
Cider vinegar has an agreeable flavor and is the best for 
pickling. 

Pickling is preserving in acid and brine. Vinegar and 
salt are used with spices and herbs which give flavor and 
at the same time are preservative. 

Kinds of Pickles. — There are many varieties of pickles, 
but in the main they may be classed as sweet, sour, dill, or 
a combination of sweet and sour. Pickles have little food 
value and are rather hard of digestion, but used in modera- 
tion as a relish with a dinner are appetizing and help stimu- 
late the digestion. 

Materials for Pickles. — Cucumbers, green tomatoes, 
watermelon rind, apples, crab apples, peaches, and pears 
make the best pickles. Use only the purest spices and the 
best cider vinegar. Whole spices are better to use than 
ground spices. If ground spices are used, tie them in a 
tiny muslin bag. 

General Rules for Pickling. — 1. Never use brass, cop- 
per, or tin utensils in making pickles. 

2. Clean the pickles thoroughly by washing in several 
waters, remove all stem ends and sort according to size. 

3. A small portion of alum improves cucumber pickles, 
but too much is injurious. 

4. Do not boil the vinegar too long- -not over 10 to 
15 minutes, — for it loses its strength. 

5. Keep the pickles covered with vinegar in good, 
clean glass or stone jars. A few pieces of horseradish 
added prevent scum from forming on the surface of the 
vinegar. 

6. If cucumbers are soaked in a brine overnight before 
pickling they will be firmer, have more of the salt taste, 



212 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

and will keep better. A brine made of about 3^2 cupful 
of salt to a quart of water is the proportion most commonly 
used. 

Sweet Pickle for Fruits 

234 c. brown sugar 1 tsp. whole cloves 

1 c. vinegar (medium sour) % oz. cinnamon 

Method. — Cook the sugar, vinegar, and spices together 
for about 15 to 20 minutes. Put in the fruit and cook until 
it begins to get tender. Remove from the fire and put 
into a large jar. The next day pour off the vinegar, reheat 
it, and pour again over the fruit. Do this several successive • 
days until the fruit is tender. Weight down a plate on top 
of the pickles to hold them under the vinegar. 

Sweet Pickle for Vegetables 

2 lbs. sugar to 2 qts. of vinegar (medium sour) 
2 tbsp. of cinnamon or stick cinnamon 

2 tbsp. of cloves Yi lb. mustard seed 

2 tbsp. ginger or allspice 3^ tbsp. red pepper 

Method. — Cook pickle ingredients together until some* 
what boiled down, and pour over the vegetables. Reheat 
the pickle 3 or 4 successive mornings and return to the 
vegetables. 

APPLICATION 

1. Pickled Green Tomato 

Method. — Wash and stem small green tomatoes and 
slice in 3^-inch slices. Cook in slightly salted water, 
(allow 1 teaspoonful of salt to a quart of water). Cook 
until tender, being careful not to mash the slices. Dram 
and put immediately into cold water to make crisp. Let 
stand an hour. Make a hot pickle as for vegetables and 
pour over the tomatoes on 3 successive days. If one desires 
a few slices of onion may be added to the tomatoes. 



PICKLING 213 

2. Sweet Pickles — Peach 

^ peck peaches 2 lbs. brown sugar 

1 pt. vinegar 1 oz. stick cinnamon 

Method. — Make a pickle of sugar, vinegar, and cinna- 
mon. Scald the peaches or remove the wool by rubbing 
with a towel. Do not stick cloves into them. If very 
ripe, pour the hot sirup over them on 3 successive mornings. 
If hard, cook a few minutes in the hot pickle; then pour on 
the hot pickle on 2 successive days. 

2. Sweet Pickled Pears 

Method. — Select sound fruit not too ripe, and pare and 
leave whole with stems on. Cook until tender and pour 
the hot pickle over them several successive mornings. Use 
same pickle as for peaches. 

3. Watermelon Pickles 

Method. — Cut the pared rind in thick slices. Boil 1 
ounce of alum in 1 gallon of water and pour it on the rinds; 
let stand several hours. Remove rinds into cold water 
and when cold boil half an hour in a sweet pickle. Reheat 
the pickle vinegar and pour over pickles on 2 successive 
mornings. Keep in stone jars. 

4. Cucumber Pickles 

1 gal. vinegar 1 c. salt 

1 c. sugar 1 c. mustard 

4 qts. small cucumbers 

Method. — Mix salt, sugar, and mustard together; then 
add the vinegar slowly, stirring well. Wash and look over 
the cucumbers, and put into a stone jar. Pour on the pickle 
brine, let stand weighed down with a plate to keep pickles 
under the brine. These pickles are ready for use in a 
week's time. The brine is not heated. 



214 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

6. Oil Pickles 
SO medium-sized cucumbers 1 tbsp. celery salt 
1 c. onions (sliced) 1 1 /2 c. olive oil 

1 c. salt 2 qts. vinegar 

1 c. white mustard seed 1 tbsp. alum 

% c. black mustard seed 

Method. — Wash cucumbers, cut off both ends, and slice 

thin without peeling. Peel the onions and slice them thin. 

Put cucumbers and onions in a crock in layers covered with 

salt and let stand over night. In the morning, drain, mix 

the powdered alum in 1 quart of vinegar and pour over the 

pickles and let stand 4 hours; drain again. Mix seeds 

through pickles; then pack all in a jar and cover with oil 

mixed well with 1 quart of fresh vinegar. Place a weight 

on top and let stand 3 weeks before using. 

6. Bordeaux Sauce 

1 qt. chopped green tomatoes 1 qt. vinegar 

2 qts. sliced cabbage Yi tsp. allspice 

3 onions % tbsp. mustard seed 
1 red pepper 1 c. brown sugar 

2 tbsp. salt 

Method. — Mix all the ingredients together and boil for 25 
minutes. Seal in small jars and use with meats as a relish. 

7. Tomato Catsup 

Yi bushel ripe tomatoes 1 tsp. white pepper 

3 bay leaves 3 onions 

1 lemon 1 tsp. red pepper 

1 tsp. black pepper 1 sc. c. salt 

2 tsp. mustard % pt. vinegar 

Method. — Wash the tomatoes thoroughly and cut in 
pieces; cook with the bay leaves, lemon, white pepper, and 
onions about 2 hours. Strain through a colander to 
remove the skins. Mix the remainder of the spices and 
stir into the strained portion, acid the salt and the vinegar, 
stir until well mixed, return to the large kettle, and cook 
slowly till the mixture thickens and is cooked down about 
one-half. Put in small sterilized bottles, seal, and keep in 
a cool, dark place. 



LESSON 5 

DOUGHS— COOKIES 

Review proportions for doughs. 
_ Review recipes for baking powder biscuit and muffin 
mixtures. Notice the proportion of ingredients. Com- 
pare with a plain cookie or a cake recipe. What ingredi- 
ents are found in much larger amounts in cookies and cakes? 

General proportions of ingredients for cookie mixtures: 

}/& to }/2 as much butter as sugar 

About \i as much liquid as flour. (Regard eggs as so 
much liquid.) 

To combine sugar and butter in cookies or cakes, work 
the butter with a wooden spoon or silver fork until soft and 
creamy. This is called "creaming" the butter. The par- 
ticles are separated and air is introduced, which helps to 
make the mixture light. Add the sugar, and work until 
sugar is moist and creamy. 

Variations in Cookie Mixtures.— A plain cookie mixture 
may be varied greatly by the use of different flavors, flour 
(bread, graham, or oatmeal), or spices; by varying the 
quantity of eggs, butter or lard, nuts or cocoanut; by cut- 
ting in fancy shapes; and by icing or cooling. 

Cookies are crisp or soft, depending on the amount of 
liquid used. More liquid makes softer cookies; less liquid 
and rolling thin make crisp cookies. 

APPLICATION 

Demonstrate rolling and cutting cookies. 

1. Sugar Cookies 

1 c. sugar 2 c. flour 

Y A c. butter y 2 tsp. salt 

\ . e SS .„ 3 tsp. baking powder 

X A c milk 1 tsp. vanilla 

(215) 



216 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, 
and cream well with a wooden spoon. Sift the salt and 
baking powder with the flour. Add the milk gradually to 
the sugar mixture, then the well beaten egg, then the vanilla, 
then the flour gradually to make a soft dough. Turn out 
on a floured board and roll a small portion at a time to ]^ 
inch thickness. Cut with a floured cookie cutter, place on 
buttered pan and bake in a hot oven until slightly brown 
(about 10 minutes). Makes 4 dozen cookies. 
{Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 

2. Sour Milk Cookies 

1 c. sugar 3^ tsp. soda 
% c. butter 14 tsp. salt 

2 eggs 2 tsp. nutmeg 

% c. sour milk or cream About 2 c. flour, or as little as possible 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar, and cream 
again. Add the well-beaten egg and then the sour milk. 
Mix and thoroughly sift the soda, nutmeg, salt and flour, 
and add gradually to the mixture. Use as little flour as 
possible, the softer the dough the better. Roll out, cut, and 
bake as other cookies. Makes 4 dozen cookies. 

(Basis for 2 girls, x /i rule.) 

3. Norwegian Cookies 

2% c. flour \i c. sweet milk 

Yl c. shortening (half butter, 2 tsp. baking powder 

half lard) 

1 c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla 

1 egg X A tsp. salt 

Method. — Beat the egg thoroughly, add the sugar, and 
beat hard. Add milk to the egg mixture; beat hard. Sift 
the baking powder with the flour and rub the cold short- 
ening into the flour with the hands until it is fine like meal ; 
then add the flour, a cupful at a time, to the wet mixture. 
Make a soft dough and set it in the ice box until quite cold. 
Roll out a small portion at a time, very thin, Y% inch thick; 



DOUGHS— COOKIES 217 

cut and bake in a quick oven 4 or 5 minutes. Makes 6 
dozen cookies. 

4. Ginger Snaps 
Y 2 c shortening 1 tsp. salt 

1 c. molasses y 2 tsp. soda 

3 l /i c. flour 1 tbsp. ginger 

l A c. sugar 

Method. — Heat the molasses to boiling point; then add 
the shortening, which may be butter or half butter and half 
lard. Mix and sift the dry ingredients and add to the wet. 
Mix well and chill. Divide the mixture, turn upon a 
floured board, part at a time, and roll very thin. Use little 
or no flour in rolling. Cut and bake on buttered baking 
sheets in a quick oven. Reserve a part of the flour, for 
all may not be needed. Makes 5 dozen cookies. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 

5. Filled Cookies 

2 c. oatmeal ground fine 1 c. shortening 

2 c - flour l A c. thick sour milk 

1 c. sugar y 2 tsp. soda 

3^ tsp. salt 

Sweet milk may be used instead of sour. Omit the 
soda and add 3 tsp. of baking powder. 

Filling 
1 c. sugar 1 c . water 

1 pkg. dates 

Method.— -Mix and roll out thinly on a floured board. 
Cut with a cookie cutter and bake 10 to 12 minutes. Stone 
the dates and put them through a food chopper. Cook 
with water and sugar for filling until it thickens. Place a 
spoonful between two cookies and press firmly together. 

6. Chocolate Cookies 

Method. — Add 3 tablespoonfuls melted chocolate to rule 
for Sugar Cookies. 



LESSON 6 

DROP BATTERS— COOKIES 

Review proportions for doughs and batters. Review 
oven tests for temperature. 

Time for baking cookies is 10 to 15 minutes. 

APPLICATION 
1. Chocolate Cookies 

* 

1 c. sugar Yi c. melted butter 

2 eggs 1 even tsp. soda 
l /2 c. milk 2 c. flour 

1 c. raisins and nuts 3 square chocolate 

1 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Mix the melted butter with the sugar. Add 
the beaten yolks and melted chocolate to this. Add soda 
to the milk and then add the milk and Y2 the flour to the 
sugar and eggs. Mix well. Add the raisins with the re- 
mainder of the flour. Add beaten whites and vanilla 
and beat well. Drop from the spoon to bake on buttered 
baking sheets. May be frosted with fudge frosting. 

(Basi"? for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

2. Rocks 
13^ c. brown sugar 1 c. butter 

3 eggs 34 tsp. cloves 

1 tsp. cinnamon 3 c. flour 

2 c. raisins \Yi c. English walnuts 

1 tsp. soda 

Method. — Cream butter and sugar well. Add the beaten 
yolks to this ; mix spices and soda with the flour and add to 
the sugar mixture. Flour fruit and nuts and add to mix- 
ture. Add the beaten whites and mix well. Drop from 
spoon and bake 10 minutes. Makes 3 dozen. 

{Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

(218) 



DROP BATTERS— COOKIES 219 

3. Peanut Cookies 
H c. sugar 3 tbsp. butter 

1 egg # 1 c . flour 

1 tsp. baking powder y 2 c. chopped nuts 

\i tsp. salt 3^ tsp. lemon juice 

Method. — Cream butter well with sugar. Add salt 
and baking powder to the flour. Add the beaten yolk to 
the butter and sugar. Then add the flour and nuts. Fold 
in white of egg, add the lemon juice, and mix stiff enough 
to drop on greased paper. Bake in a hot oven. Makes 
2 dozen cookies. 

(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 

4. Brownies 

14 c butter % c. powdered sugar 

;H* c. molasses 1 egg 

% c. flour 1 c. pecan meats 

Method. — Cream butter with sugar, add molasses, add 
the beaten yolk of egg, and beat well; mix nuts with the 
flour and then add to the rest. Add beaten white of egg. 
Bake in fancy cake pans. Put nut meats on top of each. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }i rule.) 

5. Oatmeal Cookies 

Y2 c. butter 4 tbsp. milk 

1 c. sugar 1 tsp. soda 

2 eggs 1 tsp. cinnamon 
2 c. flour y 2 tsp. cloves 

2 c. oatmeal 1 c. chopped raisins 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar, and cream 
together well. Put the soda into the milk, put the eggs 
into the sugar mixture one at a time, beat hard; add the 
milk, then the flour, oatmeal, cinnamon, cloves, and floured 
raisins. Drop by spoonfuls on a greased pan and bake 
15 or 20 minutes. 



LESSON 7 
FATS AND OILS. FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES 

Definition. — An oil is a fat that is liquid at ordinary 
temperatures. Fats that are ordinarily solid become 
liquid in the presence of heat. Oils become solid at low 
temperatures 

Sources. — Fat and oils used in cooking are obtained 
from animals and vegetables. Examples of animal fats are 
cream and butter, meat fat (suet, marrow, and drippings), 
lard, tallow, and fish oil. 

Examples of vegetable oils are olive oil, cottonseed oil, 
cocoanut oil and oils from other nuts. 

Food Value. — Fats and oils are one of the main food 
principles, and serve the body in the following ways: (1) 
By supplying heat and energy, (2) by building up the fatty 
tissue, (3) by acting as a lubricant. 

To Try Out Fat. — Beef drippings, leaf lard, etc., must 
be tried out, or freed from the connective tissue, before 
they can be used for frying. To do this, cut up the fat 
fine, put into a pan with enough water to cover, and set 
it in the oven. Let it simmer several hours. When the 
fat is melted and free from water, strain through cheese- 
cloth and cool. Try out leaf lard in a double boiler; strain, 
and cool. 

To Clarify Fat. — Fat used in frying takes up water, 
solid substances, and flavors that should be removed before 
the fat is used again. To clarify fat, melt it and add a 
few slices of raw potato. Heat gradually and allow to simmer, 
which evaporates the water. When it ceases to bubble and 

(220) 



FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES 



221 



the potato is well browned, strain through a cloth over a 
strainer into a lard-pail or jar. The potato takes up odors, 
and the solid substances are strained out. 

New fat should be used for batter and dough mixtures, 
potatoes, and fish balls. After these, fry fish, meat, and 
croquettes. 

Frying is cooking in deep fat. Fats used for frying are 
olive oil (very expensive), cottolene, beef or bacon drippings, 
or a combination of two-thirds lard and one-third beef suet. 
The combination gives better results than all lard. 




Fig. 33. Doughnuts. 

Tests for Frying Temperature. — To prevent absorption 
of fat by foods when fried, the fat must be hot enough to 
form a crust over the food as soon as put in. The fat is 
never hot enough until it ceases to bubble. Then test 
by dropping in an inch cube of bread cut from the middle 
of a slice. 

For cooked mixtures, like croquettes or fish and oysters, 
the bread should turn a golden brown in 40 seconds. 



222 tO 'ME STIC SCIENCE 

For uncooked mixtures, like fritters and doughnuts, the 
bread should turn a golden brown in 60 seconds. 

Cautions in Frying. — 1. Do not let fat get so hot as to 
smoke badly. 

2. Do not fry too large a quantity at one time, for 
it lowers the temperature of the fat. 

3. Drain all fried foods on soft paper to absorb the 
fat. 

4. Use egg and crumbs to cover mixtures that are 
likely to absorb too much fat. Why eggs? 

APPLICATION 

1. Doughnuts (sour milk) 
2 eggs 1 qt. flour 

1 c. sugar 1 c. sour milk* 

1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. melted butter 2 tsps. baking powder 

}4 tsp. cinnamon Season with vanilla or nutmeg 

Method. — Put the flour, cinnamon, baking powder*, and 
sugar into a bowl. Dissolve the soda in 1 tablespoonful 
of hot water. Add to the sour milk and then add the 
melted lard. Beat the eggs until light and add to the milk. 
Add the wet ingredients to the dry. Roli out to 34 inch 
thickness, cut, and fry in deep fat. Do not put in more 
than five doughnuts at a time or the fat will be cooled too 
greatly. Let the fat reheat between fryings. Turn the 
doughnuts while frying; drain on plain paper. Makes 3 
dozen doughnuts. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 

2. Chocolate Doughnuts 

Method. — Chocolate doughnuts are made by adding 4 tea- 
spoonfuls of chocolate to the preceding rule. 



♦If sweet milk i*3 used, use 4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and omit soaa 



FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES It* 

3. Potato Doughnuts 

1 c. mashed potatoes 3^ c. sweet milk 
1 Y 2 c. sugar 2 eggs 

2 tbsp. melted butter 3 c. flour 

3 tsp. baking powder Nutmeg grating 
Yi tsp. salt 3^ tsp. cinnamon 

Method. — Beat the eggs and add the sugar. Mash the 
potatoes and put them through a strainer ; add the butter 
and milk and put through the strainer again. Add eggs 
and sugar, and then the flour to which has been added the 
baking powder and a pinch of salt. Roll out to % inch 
thick, cut, and fry as other doughnuts. Makes 3 dozen. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

4. Corn Fritters 

1 can corn 3^ c. flour 

1 tsp. baking powder 2 tsp. salt 

34 tsp. paprika 2 eggs 

Method. — Chop the corn; add dry ingredients mixed 
and sifted well. Then add the beaten yolks of eggs and 
fold in beaten whites. Fry by spoonfuls in fresh hot lard ; 
drain on a paper. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

5. Corn Oysters 

1 c. corn 1 egg 

34 c. flour Salt and pepper 

Method. — Cut raw corn from cobs to which add the 
egg well beaten. Mix flour and seasoning with this; drop 
by the spoonful in deep fat, or cook on a hot, well-greased 
griddle. They should be made about the size of large 
oysters. Makes 2 dozen oysters. 

6. Fritter Batter 

2 eggs 2 tbsp. of melted butter 

1 c. flour 3^2 c cold water 

1 ssp. salt 1 tsp. sugar, if for sweet fritters 

Method. — Stir salt in egg yolk, add butter slowly, then 
sugar, and when well mixed stir in the flour slowly. Then 



224 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



add the water a little at a time. Beat well, set aside for 2 
hours, then stir in beaten whites of eggs. Batter must be 
thick. If not soft enough, add white of another egg. 

(Basis for 2 girls, Y /2 rule.) 

Note. — Oranges, bananas, prunes, apples, and clams or 
oysters may be used with this batter. 

Fruit. — Cut fruit in quarters, roll in powdered sugar, 
and dip in batter before sugar has time to dissolve. Fry like 
doughnuts. Roll in powdered sugar just before serving. 
Serve hot. 

For Clams or Oysters. — Use 1 tablespoonful of lemon 

juice or vinegar and use liquor of clam or oyster instead of 

water in the batter. 

7. Swedish Timbales 
% c. flour (about) l A c. milk 

Y 2 tsp. salt 1 egg 

1 tsp. sugar 1 tbsp. olive oil 

Method. — Beat the egg thoroughly and add the milk and 
olive oil. Sift the dry ingredients together, add the wet to 
the dry; beat until smooth. 

Frying. — Heat the fat as for doughnuts; use a deep 
dish and hold the iron in the hot fat until thoroughly 
heated through. Dip the hot iron into the batter to within 
a fourth of an inch of the top. Place immediately into the 




Fig. 34. TimiMUe cases and irons, and rosette iron. 



FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES 225 

hot fat deep enough to cover the iron. If the iron is too 
hot, the batter will slip off into the lard. If too cool, the 
batter will stick to the iron. Fry to a delicate brown, and 
drain on plain paper. Use for creamed peas, mushrooms, 
and finely cut salmon or chicken. Makes 3 dozen timbales. 
{Basis for 2 girls, }£ rule.) 

8. Swedish Rosettes 

1 c. milk 4 eggs 

2 tsp. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla 
Pinch of salt 1 % c. flour 

Powdered sugar 

Method. — Make a well in the flour in a bowl and add the 
milk gradually. Beat well, drop in the whole eggs one at a 
time, and beat hard with a Dover beater. When full of 
bubbles add the vanilla. Fry in deep fat on a rosette iron 
until a light brown. Move the iron up and down in the fat 
carefully to loosen the rosette from the iron and finish the 
frying off the iron. Turn the rosettes like doughnuts while 
frying. Several may be fried in the kettle at the same 
time. Serve with powdered sugar or with fresh berries and 
whipped cream. Makes about 4 dozen rosettes. 



LESSON 8 

FRYING COOKED MIXTURES 

Croquettes are mixtures of meat, fish, or vegetables 
with a thick white sauce for a binding. The whole is 
rolled in egg and crumbs and fried in deep fat. Left-overs 
of meat, vegetables, or fish are easily and daintily used in 
this way. 

General Proportions. — Use about V2 as much thick 
white sauce as meat or vegetables. 

General Method. — Break up meat, fish, or vegetables 
to be used and mix with the thick white sauce. Cool the 
mixture and then form into shape. Croquettes may be in 
the form of balls, nests, cones, or cylinders. About 2 table- 
spoonfuls of the mixture make the right size. Use tine 
bread crumbs, rolled and sifted. Roll the croquettes in 




Fig. 35. Croquettes, various shapes. 
(226; 



FRYING COOKED MIXTURES 227 

the crumbs; then in a slightly beaten egg, to which has 
been added about 2 tablespoonfuls of water; then roll 
again in the crumbs. Fry in hot fat until a nice brown, 
drain on soft paper, and garnish with parsley or jelly. 

APPLICATION 

1. Potato Croquettes 

? c. hot riced potatoes 1 tsp. parsley chopped fine 

2 tbsp. butter % tsp. salt 

Y% tsp. pepper y± tsp. celery salt 

Yolk of 1 egg A few grains of cayenne 

Few drops onion juice 

Method. — Mix ingredients in order given and beat 
thoroughly; shape, dip into crumbs, into egg, and then in 
crumbs again. Fry 1 minute in deep fat and drain on 

brown paper. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) 

2. Meat Croquettes 

2 c. chopped meat Y2 tsp. salt 

Y% tsp. pepper A few grains cayenne 

A few drops onion juice Yolk of 1 egg 

i Co thick white sauce made of white soup stock instead of milk 

Method. — Mix ingredients in order given, cool, shape, 
dip into crumbs, into egg, roll again in crumbs, and fry the 
same as other croquettes. 

(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.) 

3. Chicken Croquettes 

1 % c. chopped cold fowl \i c. thick white sauce 

}/i tsp. celery salt V^ tsp. salt 

1 tsp. lemon juice A few grains pepper 

1 tsp. parsley chopped fine A few drops onion juice 

Method. — Mix ingredients in order given; cool, shape, 
crumb, and fry. Garnish with a sprig of parsley on top. 
(Basis for 2 girls, x /i yule.) 

4. Salmon Croquettes 

1 % c. salmon (flaked) Y c. thick white sauce 

A few grains pepper 1 tsp. lemon juice 

Salt 



228 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Method. — Add sauce to salmon, add seasonings, spread 

on a plate to cool, shape, dip into crumbs, into eggs, and 

then into crumbs, and fry in deep fat. 
(Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

6. Rice Croquettes 
Y c. rice Vi c. boiling water 

1 c. scalded milk Y tsp. salt 
Yolk of 1 egg 1 tbsp. butter 

Method. — Wash the rice, add to water with salt, and 

steam until rice has absorbed water. Then add the milk, 

stir lightly with a fork, cover and steam until rice is soft. 

Remove from the fire. Add the egg and butter. Spread 

on a plate to cool. Shape, roll in crumbs, roll in the form 

of nests, dip into egg, then into crumbs, fry in deep fat, and 

drain. Put a cube of jelly in the hollow of each croquette. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

6. Lobster Cutlets 

2 can lobsters Yi tsp. salt 

3 egg whites 1 tsp. dropped celery 
Nutmeg y /l c. white sauce 

34 c. bread crumbs Cayenne pepper 

Method. — Mix ingredients and cool. Shape in the form 
of cutlets; crumb, egg, and crumb again. Fry in deep fat. 

Insert lobster claw in small end of the cutlet. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

7. French Fried Potatoes 

Method. — Wash and pare the potatoes and cut into 

eighths lengthwise. Let soak in cold water 1 hour. Drain 

and dry between towels. Fry in deep fat until an even 

brown. Drain on plain paper and sprinkle with salt. If 

the fat is too hot the potatoes will brown before they are 

thoroughly cooked. 

8. Julienne Potatoes 

Method. — Prepare and fry in the same way as French 

Fried Potatoes, with the exception that the potatoes are cut 

into shreds or strings instead of into eighths. 



LESSON 9 

PASTRY 

Pastry is mostly flour and fat. It is hard to digest even 
at its best, and whenever served should be light, flaky, and 
tender. The lightness of pastry depends on the air enclosed 
in it; its flakiness, upon the kind and amount of shortening 
and the method of mixing. 

Essentials of Good Pastry. — Good shortening. Lard, 
butter, vegetable fats and oils, or a combination of butter 
and beef drippings are suitable. 

Ice water. It is important that the ingredients be 
mixed cold. 

Pastry flour, which has more starch and makes a drier 
and more tender crust than bread flour. 
Salt, to flavor. 

Baking powder, to make the pastry lighter. 
Proportions of Ingredients.— Use \i to \i as much short- 
ening as flour. Use enough ice water to make a stiff dough. 
Pies are made with either one or two crusts. Two 
crusts are used for fruit and berry pies. 

General Methods of Making Pastry.— Method 1.— Put 
the salt and baking powder into the flour and cut the short- 
ening in with two knives or rub it in with the tips of the 
fingers if the hands are not too warm. Heat softens the 
fat and makes a tough crust. Pastry must be handled 
as little as possible. 

When the mixture is fine and creamy and looks like 
meal, add enough water to form a dough. Use the knife 
to combine the ingredients. Be careful not to make the 
dough wet. 

(229) 



230 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Turn the dough out upon a floured board, and pat and 
roll with the knife into a ball. With a slightly floured roll- 
ing pin roll the dough lightly until about J/g inch thick and 
a little larger than the pie tin. 

Method 2. — Another method of adding the shortening 
is as follows: Work in half of the shortening as described 
above, and roll out the dough to the thickness of half an 
inch ; then put in the rest of the shortening, in small pieces, 
around on top of the dough. Fold up each side of the dough 
to the center, with the shortening inside, and roll out to fit 
the tin. This method makes a more flaky crust than the 
first method. 

To Put Crust in the Tins. — Lift the crust on the rolling- 
pin and lower over the pie tin. Be sure the dough is large 
enough all around. Fit the dough to the pan gently, so that 
no air bubbles form underneath the crust next to the pan.- 

If a single crust is used, have the edge of the dough about 
1 inch larger than the pan, and double under, to form an 
edge to the pie. 

If a double crust is used, cut off the crust to fit the pan. 
To do this, hold the pie in the left hand and a knife in the 
right. Slant the knife with the point away from the body, 
and cut along the edge of the tin. (See Fig. 36.) 

To Put Crusts Together. — Put the filling in the lower 
crust. When ready for the upper crust dip the fingers in 
cold water and wet th'e edge of the lower crust. 

Make slight openings in the upper crust to let the steam 
out of the pie when baking. Lift the crust on the rolling 
pin and lower upon the pie; fit down, and cut off even. 

Press the edges of the two crusts together to hold in the 
juice of the pie. This may be done with a fork or with the 
fingers. Do not press so hard that the crust will bake to 
the pan. 




Fig. 36. Fitting pastry to a pie tin, and method of baking crust on inverted tin. 



232 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Time for Baking Pies. — Two-crust, fruit and berry pies 
require 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven. 

For the bottom crust bake a crust first on the inverted 
tin to allow for the shrinking of the dough. Bake 5 or 6 
minutes in a hot oven. Slip the baked crust to the inside 
of the tin, put in the filling, and return to the oven to com- 
plete the baking. 

APPLICATION (Two-crust pies) 

Demonstrate cutting in the shortening and rolling out 
pastry according to Method 1. 

1. Plain Pastry 

34 c. shortening (lard or half butter and lard) 

1 c. pastry flour Y tsp. salt 

Y tsp. baking powder 

Ice water Y to 34 c, or enough to moisten dough 

Method. — Have all materials cold, mix and sift the flour, 
salt, and baking powder, cut in the shortening with knives 
until fine like meal. Add enough ice water to make a stiff 
dough. Be careful not to make the dough sticky. Take 
on a slightly floured board and roll lightly to 34 mc h thick- 
ness. If pastry stands on ice before rolling out it improves 
it. Bake in a very hot oven. Makes 2 crusts for large pie. 

(Basis for 2, one small pie, Y rule.) 

2. A Richer Pastry (Method 2) 
\ l /2 c. flour Y to Y c. shortening (butter) 

Y tsp. salt 34 tsp. baking powder 

Ice water to make a stiff dough 

Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients; rub in half the 
shortening, as in Method 2 ; add the ice water, and roll out 
the dough on a floured board. Put remaining butter on 
top in small pieces. Fold pastry or roll up and divide in 
two parts if two crusts are needed. Roll out each crust 
separately. Makes 2 crusts. 



PASTRY 233 

3. Apple Pie 

4 or 5 sour apples % tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg 

]/2 c. sugar 1 tsp. butter 

1 tsp. lemon juice 2 tbsp. water 

}/s tsp. salt 

Method. — Wash, pare, and slice the apples. Line the 
pie plate with pastry and fill with sliced apples. Mix the 
sugar, salt, and spices and sprinkle over the apples. Add 
the lemon juice, butter, and water. Use more or less water 
according to the kind of apples used. Place on the upper 
crust. Bake in a hot oven 40 or 45 minutes or until the 
apples are well cooked. 

(Basis for 2, 34 rule.) 

4. Berry Pie 

\}/2 c. berries (blackberries or blueberries) 
]/2 c. sugar y% tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. flour 

Method. — Line a deep pie tin with plain paste, fill with 
berries, which have been washed and picked over. Cover 
with sugar, add salt, and dredge with flour. Berries may 
be cooked before adding to the pie crust, if preferred. Place 
on upper crust, and bake 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven. 

5. Mock Cherry Pie 

1}^ c. cranberries 3^ c. seeded raisins 

1 tsp. butter 1 c. sugar 

3^ c. water 1 tbsp. flour 

1 tsp. almond extract 

Method. — Line the pie tin with plain paste, put in the 
cranberries, which have been thoroughly washed and cut 
in halves. Add the washed raisins and then the sugar, 
water, and almond extract. Dredge with flour, place bits 
of butter on top, and put on the upper crust. Bake 40 to 45 
minutes in a hot oven. 

6. Rhubarb Pie 

\ l /2 c. rhubarb 3^ c. brown sugar 

Y2 c. raisins 2 tbsp. flour 

1 tsp. butter 



234 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Method. — Wash and cut up the stalks of young rhubarb, 
but do not peel. Line a pie tin with plain paste, fill with 
the rhubarb. Wash the raisins and add to the pie, cover 
with brown sugar, dredge with flour, add bits of butter on 
top, and put on the upper crust. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in 
a hot oven. 



7. Min 

4 lbs. lean beef 


ce Meat 

Yl lb. citron cut fi 


2 lbs. beef suet 


2 c. molasses 


6 c. chopped apples 


2 x /i qts. cider 


3 quinces 


1 tbsp. cinnamon 


3 lbs. sugar 


2 tsp. nutmeg 


3 lbs. currants 


1 tsp. pepper 


4 lbs. raisins (seeded) 


Salt to taste 


Juice 2 oranges 


Rind of Yl orange 



Method. — Cook the meat and suet until tender, let 

cool in the kettle, and the suet will form on the top in a 

cake of fat, which may be removed. Cut or chop the meat 

quite fine, and add the apples, which should be twice the 

amount of the meat when chopped. Chop the quinces 

and add to the meat; then add the sugar, molasses, cider, 

raisins, currants, and citron. Add the suet cut fine, also 

the meat stock in which the meat was cooked, reduced to 

about V/i cups. Heat all gradually, stir slowly, being 

careful not to mash ingredients. Cook slowly about 2 

hours; then add the spices. Sweet pickle vinegar gives a 

pleasant flavor to the mince meat, and may be utilized in 

this way. Keep in stone jars or seal in glass jars until ready 

to use. 

8. Mince Pies 

Method. — Fill lower crust with the mince meat and 
cover with bits of butter, dredge with flour, and place top 
crust. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven. Individual 
pies may be baked in little tins or in muffin tins. 



LESSON 10 

PASTRY (Continued) 

One-Crust Pies. — For cooked mixtures a one-crust pie 
is used. The crust is much more crisp if baked first. To 
avoid the shrinking of the paste, bake the crust on the 
bottom of the inverted tin. Place on carefully, allowing 
the paste to come well down over the edge of the tin ; trim 
off evenly, and fold pastry under to make a rim. Prick 
the crust in several places before baking. When the crust 
is baked, which requires 5 or 6 minutes, slip it off the bottom 
of the plate to the inside, and fill. One-crust pies do not 
require as long a time for baking as two-crust pies. 

Tins for Pies. — Perforated tin plates are best for baking 
pies. These may be had shallow or deep, as preferred. 
The under crust of pies is more thoroughly cooked and 
browned in these tins than when baked in earthen or granite 
pans. Never grease a pie tin, for pastry contains enough 
shortening to prevent the crust from adhering to the tin. 
Pies can be slipped to earthen plates when cool. 

Food Value of Pastry. — Pastry is very hard to digest. 
The fat in pastry completely envelops the starch grains 
in the flour, preventing contact with water and with the 
digestive juices. Only tender, flaky pastry should be 
eaten, and that only by persons who are well and possessed 
of good digestion. 



(235) 



236 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

APPLICATION (One-crust pies) 

1. Lemon Pie 

1 c. sugar 4 tbsp. lemon juice 

2 eggs (yolks) Grated rind 1 lemon 

3 tbsp. cornstarch 1 tsp. butter 

1 c. boiling water 

Method. — Mix the sugar and cornstarch. Put in a 
double boiler, add boiling water, and stir constantly. Cook 
2 minutes, and add the butter, beaten egg yolks, rind, and 
lemon juice. Bake a crust on the bottom of the pan, slip 
into the inside of the pan, fill with lemon mixture slightly 
cooled, and cover with meringue. Return to top grate 
of hot oven and brown meringue quickly. 

Meringue 

2 egg whites % tsp. lemon juice 

2 tbsp. powdered sugar x /i tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Beat the whites until stiff, add the sugar 
gradually, and then the flavoring. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 14 rule.) 

2. Custard Pie 

2 eggs Y% tsp. salt 

J4 c. sugar Nutmeg (grated) 

2 c. milk 1 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Line a pie tin with pastry, make a good 
rim on the crust. Scald the milk and pour over the slightly 
beaten eggs; add the sugar and salt. Strain the mixture 
into the lower crust, and grate a little nutmeg over the top. 
Bake in a hot oven to cook the rim well; then reduce the 
heat and cook more slowly until custard is firm. Test 
with knife as with cup custard. Egg mixtures require a 
moderate oven. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 14 rule.) 



PASTRY 237 

3. Pumpkin Pie 

1 }/2 c. cooked and strained pumpkin 26 c. brown sugar 
Y 2 tsp. ginger or nutmeg 1 tsp. salt 

2 eggs 1 tsp. cinnamon 
\Yi c. milk 1 tsp. orange juice 

Method. — Mix pumpkin, sugar, salt, and spices, add 
slightly beaten egg, and milk. Beat well; then add t:ie 
orange juice. Fill the crust and bake. When a silver 
knife inserted in the pie will come from it clean, the Die is 
done. 

4. Banana Pie 

Y 2 doz. bananas y 2 tsp. salt 

}4 c. powdered sugar \y 2 c. whipped cream 

Method. — Bake single crust of pastry, fill with sliced 
bananas, add salt and powdered sugar. Cover with whip- 
ped cream just before serving. Red raspberries may be 
used in place of bananas. 

6. Cream Pie 

Method. — Make same as Custard Pie, substitunng cream 
for milk and omitting the nutmeg. 

6. Chocolate Pie 

Method. — Add J4 square of Baker's chocolate, after it 
is melted, to the rule for Cream Pie before baking. 

7. Cocoanut Pie 

Method. — Add 3^ cup of freshly grated cocoanut to 
Cream Pie, before baking. 



LESSON 11 

CARBOHYDRATES— SUGAR, CANDY 

Sugar is a sweet crystalline substance belonging to the 
Carbohydrate class of foods. It is soluble in cold water. 
How does it differ from starch? 

Sources. — Sugar is obtained commercially from the 
sugar cane, sugar beets, and the sugar maple tree. 

Kinds. — The principal kinds of sugar are: — 1. Cane 
sugar, or sucrose, obtained from sugar cane, beets, and the 
sugar maple tree. 

2. Grape sugar, or glucose, found in grapes, in dried 
fruits, like raisins and dates, and in honey. Commercial 
glucose is made from corn starch by boiling with an acid. 
Glucose is not as sweet as cane sugar. 

Honey is a natural sirup made up chiefly of a mixture 
of sugars and water. 

3. Milk sugar, or lactose, obtained from milk. 

Sugar Cane. — Sugar cane is a tropical plant similar 
to corn and grows to a height of from 8 to 15 feet. The 
stalk is spongy like corn and is filled with sweet sap. 
When ripe the cane is stripped of leaves and tops and is 
cut and taken to the mill. ■ 

Sugar Beets. — Sugar beets are profitably grown in many 
states. About half of the world's supply of sugar is made 
from beets. There is no difference between beet and cane 
sugars. 

Manufacture of Sugar. — The sweet juice is extracted 
by crushing the cane or beets between rollers. The juice 
is purified and then evaporated down to a sirup by heating 
in vacuum pans. The sugar crystallizes out from the 

(238) 



SUGAR, CANDY 2SI 

sirup and is removed by centrifugal means. What does 
not crystallize remains as molasses. Molasses from sugar 
beets is not used for the table; no way has been found to 
purify it. Brown sugar is raw, unrefined sugar. In certain 
methods of manufacture, it is redissolved, passed through 
filters of lamp black to remove the color, and then recrys- 
tallized. 

Forms of Sugar. — The crystals of sugar as separated 
from the sirup and dried form granulated sugar. When 
the thick sirup is run into molds, it hardens and forms 
loaf sugar, which may be sawed into cubes. The broken 
pieces ground fine become powdered sugar. 

Food Value of Sugar.— Sugar in moderate amounts has 
the same food value that starch has, but is in an easier 
form for digestion. For this reason it is of value to persons 
who have difficulty in digesting starch. It is very good in 
times of great exertion or labor, when the body demands 
an immediate supply of energy. If taken in excess or 
between meals it is very apt to cause indigestion or to spoil 
the appetite for nutritious foods that are needed. 

Candy. — Candy is a useful food when eaten at the 
proper time, at the close of a meal. Homemade candy is 
cheaper and purer than that bought in many stores. 
Impure sugar and unwholesome coloring matter are too 
often used in the manufacture of candies. 

Effects of Heat on Sugar. — Sugar undergoes several 
changes during the process of cooking. The terms "soft 
ball," "hard ball," "thread," "the crack" or "brittle" and 
"caramel" are used in making candy to distinguish the dif- 
ferent temperatures and changes. 

1. Soft ball is the stage of heating sugar when a little 
dropped into cold water and then rolled in the fingers forms 
a soft ball. 



240 ' DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

2. Hard ball is the stage when sugar similarly tested 
makes a hard ball in the fingers. 

3. Thread is a higher temperature stage when the sugar 
spins a thread when dropped from a spoon. 

4. The crack or brittle stage is reached when the sugar 
immediately hardens and crackles when dropped into cold 
water. 

5. Caramel is the stage at which the heat causes the 
sugar to turn brown. 

Utensils for candy-making are: 1. A large agate or 

iron kettle, as sugar burns very easily. 2. A wooden spoon 

or paddle for mixing. 3. Buttered tins or a marble slab 

for cooling. 

APPLICATION 

1. Peanut Brittle 

2 c. sugar 1 c. chopped peanuts 

Pinch of salt 

Method. — Melt the sugar without water in a frying pan. 
Stir with a wooden spoon constantly, until clear and a 
light brown; then pour over the peanuts spread on a 
buttered pan. While still warm cut into squares. 

{Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 

2. Chocolate Fudge 
2 c. sugar 1 tbsp. butter 

1 c. milk or cream J/£ tsp. vanilla 

2 squares chocolate 

Method. — Cook the sugar, milk, and chocolate in a pan, 
stirring constantly, until a little forms a soft ball when tried 
in cold water. Add the butter, and remove from the fire. 
Let stand until nearly cold; then add the vanilla and beat 
hard until it begins to thicken and to wrinkle at the edge 
of the pan. Spread quickly 1 inch thick on a buttered pan ; 
cool and cut in 1J^ inch squares. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 



SUGAR, CANDY 241 

3. Chocolate Nut Fudge 
Method. — Chocolate nut fudge is made by adding J^ 
cup of walnuts or pecans, cut in small pieces, to Chocolate 
Fudge just before beating it. 

4. Pinoche 

2 c. brown sugar Yz c pecans 

Y 2 c. milk Yi tcp. vanilla 

2 tbsp. butter Pinch of salt 

Method. — Boil the sugar, milk, and butter until a soft 
ball is formed in cold water, stirring constantly. Remove 
from the fire, cool, and then add the nuts and vanilla and 
beat until thick and creamy. Spread 1 inch thick on but- 
tered tins. Cut in 1 Yi inch squares. 
(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 

6. Sea Foam 

2 c. sugar Y c. chopped walnuts 

Y c. orn sirup 3 egg whites 

% c. boiling water Y tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Boil sugar, sirup, and water until a hard ball 
is formed in cold water, or it spins a thread. Beat the eggs 
stiff and dry; then pour on the sirup very gradually, add 
the nuts cut fine and beat until very creamy. Spread 
V/^ inches thick on a buttered pan and cut in squares. 
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.) 

6. Butter Scotch 
1 c. sugar 1 tbsp. vinegar 

\i c. molasses 2 tbsp. boiling water 

Y c. butter 

Method. — Boil the ingredients until the crack or brittle 
stage. Pour in buttered pan, about J4 inch thick, and 
mark in squares while still warm. 

7. Pulled Taffy 

2 c. sugar 1 c. water 

Yi c. vinegar 1 tsp. vanilla 

3 tbsp. butter Yz tsp. lemon extract 
—16 



242 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Method. — Boil sugar, butter, water, and vinegar until 
a little forms a soft ball in cold water. Do not stir. Flavor, 
pour on buttered platter, and pull as soon as possible. 

{Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.) 

8. Pop Corn Balls 
1 c. corn syrup 1 tbsp. Vinegar 

Yz c. sugar J4 tsp. soda 

1 tsp. cream tartar 4 qts. popped corn 

2 tbsp. butter 

Method. — Boil the syrup, sugar and cream of tartar to 
the soft ball stage. Then add the butter and soda. Pour 
over the freshly popped corn, cool and shape into 15 balls. 

9. Cheap Butter Scotch 

1 c. light brown sugar Y± c. vinegar 

1 tbsp. butter 

Method. — Boil the sugar and the vinegar to the crack 
stage. Add the butter and pour into buttered pans to 
cool. Mark in squares before it is cold. 



LESSON 12 



PROTEIN— FISH 

Fish is next to meat in importance as an animal food. 
Fish contains albumin, gelatin, fat, mineral matter, and 
water. 

Composition of Fish (dressed for market) 



Kinds 



Refuse 



Protein 



Fat 



Carbohy- 


Mineral 


drate 


matter 


% 


% 




.6 






23.1 






.9 







1.0 




.4 






.9 

.7 








.9 

.7 

1.0 

.7 
.8 














.7 
2.3 


5.2 


.8 


.2 


.9 


3.3 


.2 


2.6 



Water 



Black bass 

Cod, salt, boneless 

Halibut 

Mackerel 

Perch 

Pickerel 

Pike 

Salmon 

Shad 

Smelts 

Trout, brook 

Trout, lake 

Whitefish 

Clams 

Lobsters 

Oysters 

Shrimps 



% 
46.7 

17.7 
34.6 
62.5 
35.9 
30.5 
39.2 
50.1 
41.9 
37.9 
35.2 
53.2 

61.7 



% 
10.3 
22.2 
15.1 
13.7 

7.2 
11.9 
13.0 
12.4 

9.2 
10.0 
11.7 
12.4 
10.3 
10.6 

5.9 

6.1 
25.4 



% 

.5 

.3 

4.4 

6.2 

1.5 

.2 

.4 

8.1 

4.8 

1.0 

1.3 

6.6 

3.0 

1.1 

.7 

1.4 

1.0 



% 

41.9 
54.4 
61.9 
44.5 
28.4 
51.1 
55.4 
37.4 
35.2 
46.1 
48.4 
45.0 
32.5 
80.8 
30.7 
88.3 
70.8 



Kinds. — Fish are classified as vertebrates, or fish proper, 
those having a backbone; and shellfish. Those having a 
backbone are divided into two classes: white fish and oily 
fish. 

In the white-fleshed fish, the fat is found only in the 
liver; in oily fish, the fat is found distributed throughout 
the entire body. 

J (243) 



244 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

White-fleshed fish include whitefish, cod, perch, pickerel, 
sunfish, smelts, croppies, soles, brook trout, and black bass. 
Oily fish include salmon, lake trout, shad, herring, mackerel, 
halibut, and eels. 

Structure of Fish. — The flesh of fish is made up of 
bundles of fibers similar to those of meat, but there is so 
little connective tissue that the bundles of fibers are not. 
held together as firmly as in meat. Notice how easily 
we can pull the flesh of fish apart. Examine and compare 
with the structure of meat. 

Food Value. — Fish is like meat in nutritive value, and 
may be substituted for it in the diet. It is not, however, so 
satisfying and stimulating as meat, largely because it 
contains less extractives. Fish belongs to the proteins; it 
contains a varying amount of fat and practically no car- 
bohydrates. In general, the fuel value of 1 pound of fish 
is about equal to }/% pound of meat. 

Digestibility. — In general, fish is easily digested, vary- 
ing with the amount of fat and coarse fiber present. White 
fleshed fish, excepting the cod, is more easily digested, but 
less stimulating, than oily fish. Cod has coarser fiber 
than other white-fleshed kinds. 

Freshness is the all-important quality in fish. Fish 
decomposes quickly and there is greater danger from 
ptomaine poisoning than in other foods. This is especially 
true of shellfish, which are preferably shipped and sold 
alive. 

To Tell if a Fish Is Fresh.— 1. The gills are bright red 
and clear. 

2. The eyes are bright and full. 

3. The flesh is firm, the tail not drooping. 

4. The scales do not come off easily and there is no 
disagreeable odor. 



FISH 245 

To Clean Scaly Fish. — Fish are cleaned at the market, 
if ordered. Remove the scales by working a knife over the 
fish, beginning at the tail and drawing the knife towards 
the head. If the fish is to be used at once, dip it into boil- 
ing water and remove immediately. This aids in loosening 
the scales. Wash the fish thoroughly inside and out 
with a wet cloth, then dry on a clean cloth. Leave the 
head and the tail on for baking whole. Keep on ice, but 
not in the ice box, since the odor may taint the other foods. 

To Skin a Fish. — With a sharp knife slit the skin along 
the entire length of the backbone. Remove the fins. 
Loosen the skin by working carefully with a small knife, 
beginning at the center of the back and working along one 
side around the fish. Then turn the fish over and loosen 
the skin on the other side. 

To Bone a Fish. — After the fish is skinned begin at 
the tail with the boning knife and separate the flesh from 
the backbone on each side. Follow the ribs and work 
carefully towards the head. The entire backbone and 
the ribs will all come out together. See that all the lit- 
tle bones are removed. 

Methods of Cooking Fish. — Broiling and baking are the 
best methods of cooking fish. They may also be fried, 
sauted, or boiled. White fish may be fried, but oily fish 
rarely. Sii ce fish contains albumin, cold water and boiling 
water have the same effect on it as on meat and egg white. 
Review this point. What temperature is best for the 
cooking of albumin? 

Large fish are suitable for baking whole, the stuffing 
and the sauce usually served with it supplying food ele- 
ments that the fish lacks. 

Oily fish and those that are of small size are usually 
broiled. Boiling is a rather wasteful way of cooking fish. 



246 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Why? Large pieces of cod, and salmon, sometimes trout, 
may be boiled. 

APPLICATION (Baked Fish— Demonstration) 

1. Baked Fish 

Method. — Remove the scales carefully, clean, wipe, and 
dry the fish. Leave the head and tail on. Rub the fish 
well with salt. Stuff with dressing and sew up, using a 
coarse needle and thread. Be careful not to fill the fish 
too full, for the dressing expands during the baking. Put 




Fig. 37. Baked white fish. 

fish on a fish sheet or on strips of cotton or bacon in the pan, 
which aids in removing the fish when done. Make three 
gashes on each side of the fish, alternating, and set in 2-inch 
strips of bacon. This is done to add fat to fish that are 
lacking it, as white fish. Skewer the fish into the form of 
the letter S. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and dredge 
with flour. Bake in the oven 30 to 45 minutes, basting 
every 10 minutes from 1 cup of hot water to which has been 
added }/i cup of butter. When well browned, remove from 



FISH 247 

the pan carefully to a hot platter ; take out the skewers and 
strings. Garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve hot 
with a fish sauce. 

2. Dressing for Fish 

1 c. stale bread crumbs 1 tbsp. melted butter 

Yi. tsp. salt Pepper, a few grains 

1 tbsp. minced parsley Onion juice, a few drops 

Water, enough to moisten 

Method. — Mix the ingredients in the order given; use 
enough water to moisten slightly. 

3. Hollandaise Sauce 

Yz c. butter Yolk of 2 eggs 

Yl tbsp. vinegar c>r Y tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. lemon juice Cayenne, a few grains 

Method. — Wash the butter, separate it into three parts, 
and put one piece in the double boiler with the vinegar or 
lemon juice and egg yolks; stir constantly with a wire 
whisk. Add second piece of butter, and, as the material 
thickens, the third piece. Remove from the fire and add 
the salt and cayenne. If left over the fire a few seconds 
longer it will separate. If a richer sauce is desired, add Yi 
tablespoon heavy cream and J^ teaspoon hot water. 

{Housekeepers make full rule.) 

4. Drawn Butter Sauce 
Y c. butter 3 tbsp. flour 

13^ c. hot water y 2 tsp. salt 

Y tsp. pepper 

Method. — Put half the butter in a pan; when bubbling, 
but not brown, add the salt, pepper, and flour and stir until 
smooth. Add the water and stir while it thickens. Add 
the remainder of the butter and stir until it is absorbed. 

5. Caper Sauce 
2 c. boiling water 4 tbsp. flour 

Y c. butter Y tsp. pepper 

Y2 tsp. salt Yi c. capers 



248 DOMESTIC) SCIENCE 

Method. — Melt half the butter, add the flour. Stir 
while gradually adding the boiling water. Boil five min- 
utes, add salt, pepper, remaining butter, and drained capers. 

6. Tartar Sauce 
^ c. mayonnaise dressing 1 tsp. parsley, washed and chopped 
1 tsp. chopped pickle 1 tsp. chopped olives 

Method. — Mix the parsley, pickle, and olives, and add 
them to the mayonnaise dressing. 



LESSON 13 

PROTEIN— FISH (Continued) 

Review Lesson 12. 

APPLICATION 
1. Fried Fish 

Method. — Clean fish and wipe as dry as possible. Sprin- 
kle with salt and pepper, dip into flour or crumbs, into egg, 
and again into crumbs. Fry in deep hot fat ; drain on soft 
paper. Serve on a hot dish, garnishing with parsley and 
slices of lemon. Cornmeal may be used in place of the flour. 

2. Broiled Fish 

Method. — Bluefish, cod, haddock, and mackerel are split 
down the back and broiled whole, removing head and tail if 
desired. Salmon, halibut, and swordfish are cut in inch 
slices for broiling. Smelt and other small fish are broiled 
whole without splitting, but the entrails are squeezed out 
carefully so as not to bruise the fish. Clean and wipe the 
fish, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and place in a well- 
greased wire broiler, cooking the flesh side first. Turn it 
and cook the skin until crisp. Sliced fish should be turned 
often while broiling, slip upon a hot platter, or place platter 
over fish and invert platter and broiler together. 

Small fish require 10 to 15 minutes for broiling. 

Large fish require 15 to 20 minutes for broiling. 

3. Sauted Fish 

Method. — Prepare the fish as for frying, and cook in a 
frying pan with a small amount of fat. The fish may be 
dipped into cornmeal in place of flour. Smelts are best 
cooked in this way. 

(249) 



250 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

4. Boiled Fish 

Method. — Large fish are cut in thick pieces for boiling. 
Clean and wipe the fish; tie in a piece of cheesecloth to 
prevent the deposit of scum on the fish and to hold the 
fish together. Place the fish on a rack or frying basket 
to preserve its shape and to make it easier to remove. Cook 
gently in enough boiling salted water to cover the fish, using 
i teaspoonfuls of salt and 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar to 
each quart of water. The salt gives flavor; vinegar or 
lemon juice keeps the flesh white. Allow about 10 minutes 
to the pound. The fish is cooked when the flesh is firm 
and separates easily from the bone. Remove from the 
water, take off the cheesecloth, put on a hot platter and 
serve with Hollandaise Sauce. 

5. Salmon Mousse 

1 lb. salmon, either chopped or pounded fine 

4 eggs 2 tbsp. butter 

2 tbsp. flour 1 c. stock, or milk or cream 

Method. — Chop the salmon in small pieces, the finer the 
salmon the creamier the mousse; add the yolks of eggs, 
melted butter, flour, and stock; put all through a strainer. 
Add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and J4 teaspoonful of pepper; 
fold in the beaten whites of eggs. Turn into a well-buttered 
mold. Set the mold in a pan of hot water and bake in a 
moderate oven Y2 hour. The mousse is done when it is 
light to the touch. Serve with or without sauce. Potato 
balls are appropriate with it. This rule serves 6 persons. 

(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule!) 

6. Fried Frogs' Legs 

6 pairs frogs' legs Fine bread crumbs 

1 egg Salt and pepper 

Method. — Skin and wash the legs in cold water and dry 
them on a clean towel. Season with salt and pepper and a 
little lemon juice. Beat up the egg slightly, and dip the 



FISH 251 

legs into the beaten egg, then into the fine crumbs, and fry in 
hot fat for about 5 minutes. Drain on plain paper. A 
wire frying basket is best to fry them in. Serve hot with 
Tartar Sauce. 

7. Salmon Loaf 

1 can salmon 1 c. stale bread crumbs 

2 eggs Y2 c. milk 
1 tsp. lemon juice 1 tsp. salt 

Method. — Mince the salmon and remove the bones. 
Add the bread crumbs, beaten eggs and the milk. Season 
with salt and lemon juice. Put into well greased molds 
and steam or bake 30 minutes. Turn from the mold, serve 
hot or cold with white sauce, sour sauce or lemon. 

8. Codfish Puff 

x /l c. shredded codfish 2 eggs 

1 c. potatoes diced Dash of pepper 

1 tbsp. butter 

Method. — Soak the codfish in cold water for 15 minutes. 
Shred it into bits. Pare and dice the potatoes, and cook 
with the codfish in boiling water until tender. Mash, add 
the butter and pepper. Beat well with a fork until the 
codfish is in fine threads. Beat the eggs very light and 
fold into the fish mixture. The mixture should be soft 
and creamy. Have an omelet pan hot. Grease the bot- 
tom, add the fish mixture, spread evenly about 3^2 mcn 
thick and cook slowly until a brown crust is formed. 
Loosen the edges and roll one side over half way and turn 
out on a hot plate like an omelet. 



LESSON 14 

PROTEIN— FISH (Continued) 

Preservation of Fish. — Fish are preserved by salting, 
smoking, drying, or a combination of these, and by canning. 
Many fish are preserved in oil. Name some examples of each. 

Cost. — Fish are never plentiful except in seaport towns 
or near lakes and rivers where they abound. Fish are very 
perishable and must be transported in refrigerator cars or 
else frozen or preserved by one of the above mentioned 
methods. For this reason the price of fish is never very low, 
where fish is not easily available. 

Using Left-overs. — Cooked fish left-overs may be 
broken up into small pieces and used with cream sauce, or 
scalloped, or made into hash, croquettes, or fish balls. 

APPLICATION 

1. Creamed Codfish 
^ c. salt codfish 4 tbsp. flour 

2 c. milk 2 tbsp. butter 

Spk. of pepper 

Method. — Wash, pick the codfish into small pieces, and 
soak it a few hours in lukewarm water until soft. Drain 
and add to a white sauce made from butter, flour, pepper, 
and milk. The beaten yolk of an egg may be added just 
before serving. Serve on or with hot buttered toast. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule). 

2. Fish Balls 

1 c. salt codfish 1 egg 

2 c. potatoes % tbsp. butter 

Pepper 

Method. — Pick the codfish into small pieces and soak in 
lukewarm water until soft. Boil and mash the potatoes, 

(362) 



FISH 253 

season with butter and pepper, and add beaten egg. Drain 
the fish, add to the potato mixture, and beat well. Take up 
by heaping tablespoonfuls and shape into balls; fry about 
six at a time in deep fat. Drain on brown paper. Garnish 

with parsley and serve. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }{ c. codfish.) 

3. Fish Croquettes 
l}/£ c. flaked salmon 1 tbsp. flour 

% c. halibut 2 tsp. butter 

Salt and pepper 34 c. milk 

Method. — Put the butter and flour together, add the hot 
milk slowly, and press out all lumps. Stir the mixture and 
cook it until it is smooth and thick; add the salt, pepper, 
and flaked fish. Spread the mixture on a plate to cool. 
When cool, shape, roll in crumbs, in egg, and then in 
crumbs. Fry in deep fat and drain on brown paper. Serve 
on a hot dish and garnish with parsley. 

4. Fish and Macaroni 

Method. — Pieces of left-over fish may be combined with 
boiled macaroni and white sauce and served as a luncheon 
dish. 

6. Finnan Haddie 

Method. — Soak the fish in cold water for % hour; then 
lay them in boiling water for 5 minutes. Wipe very dry, 
rub butter and lemon juice into the fish, and broil for 15 
minutes. Serve with a hot butter sauce. 

6. Creamed Finnan Haddie 

Method. — Put the fish in cold water, cover and let soak 
20 minutes. Gradually bring the water to a boil and simmer 
Yi hour. Drain, rinse, and separate the fish into flakes, 
using a fork. To each cup of fish use % cup of medium white 
sauce, heat together, season with salt, pepper, and plenty 
oi paprika, and serve. 



LESSON 15 

PROTEIN— SHELLFISH 

Shellfish used for food include oysters, clams, scallops, 
lobsters, shrimps, crabs, and mussels. 

OYSTERS 

Source. — Oysters are found in shallow salt water, the 
supply for this country coming mostly from the Atlantic 
and Gulf coasts. They are cultivated in large quantities 
in the Chesapeake Bay. 

Season for Oysters. — Oysters are in season from Sep- 
tember to April, or in any month containing an r. Avoid 
them in hot weather, when they are flabby and poor. 

Growth. — An oyster shell has two parts, connected by a 
hinge. The part on which the oyster grows is deeper and 
rounder than the part covering it. There are two strong 
muscles that open and close the shell. The oyster has 
neither head nor tail, but has a mouth near the' hinge end of 
the shell. Oysters spawn during the summer. One oyster 
lays millions of eggs in a season. Small oysters are planted 
along the coast, much as young fish are put into streams. 

Food Value. — The nutrient of the oyster is mainly pro- 
tein, which is very delicate and requires a moderate tem- 
perature and not long cooking. Oysters are more easily 
digested when raw, and are nutritious. Bulk for bulk they 
compare favorably with milk in food value. Oysters live on 
plant and animal life brought to them in the water. If the 
water in which they grow is impure, they are likely to 
become carriers of disease. 



SHELLFISH 255 

To Open Oysters. — Run a thin knife blade under the 
back opening and cut forward through the strong muscle 
which holds the shell together. Then open the shell and 
remove the oyster. 

To Clean Oysters. — Drain off and save the liquid from 
the oysters. Put the oysters in a strainer and pour cold 




Fig. 38. Blue points, as served. 

water over them to rinse them. Pick over the oysters 
separately to remove any pieces of shell. Use the oyster 
liquid in stews. 

Blue points are small oysters so named because the first 
came from Blue Point, Long Island. They are regarded to 
be of extra quality. 

OTHER SHELLFISH 

Clams are similar to oysters. The hard-shell varieties 
are known as little neck clams, and are served in the half 
shell, in coast towns. The soft-shelled clams are used 
more in New England. 

Lobsters are abundant from June to September, but are 
used all the year. A lobster weighs about 2 pounds, and is 



256 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

12 to 15 inches long. Lobsters are more difficult to digest 
than other shellfish. They are broiled or boiled. 

Shrimps are in season from May to October, and are 

found more abundant in Southern waters, the best coming 

from Lake Pontchartrain. Canned shrimps are much used 

for salads. 

APPLICATION 

1. Oyster Stew 
2 c. milk (scalded) 1 tbsp. butter 

2 c. oysters % tsp. white pepper 

1 c. oyster liquor Salt to taste 

Method. — Pick over the oysters, wash in a strainer set in 
a bowl of water, removing any adhering pieces of shell. 
Heat the oyster liquor; then add the oysters and cook until 
the edges curl, which requires only a few minutes. Add the 
hot milk, butter, and seasoning, and serve at once. Oysters 
become tough if not served immediately or if over-cooked. 

2. Fried Oysters 

1 doz. select oysters 3^ c. cracker crumbs 

1 tsp. salt 2 eggs 

}4 tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. water 

Method. — Clean oysters, and dry them thoroughly 
between two towels; season with salt and pepper. Roll in 
fine crumbs and then in beaten eggs to which has been 
added the water; then roll in fine crumbs again, and fry in 
a wire basket in deep, hot fat until nicely browned. Drain 
on a piece of plain paper. Serve hot, garnished with pars- 
ley or cabbage slaw and lemon. 

3. Creamed Oysters 
1 pt. oysters 13^ c. medium white sauce 

3^8 tsp. celery salt 

Method. — Clean and cook the oysters in their liquor until 
the edges curl; drain, and add to hot medium white sauce; 
add the celery salt. Serve on squares of toast, in timbale 



SHELLFISH 257 

cases, or in toasted buns. Cut off top of bun, scoop out the 
center, leaving shell whole. Spread with butter, toast in 
o\en. Fill with creamed oysters. Garnish with parsley 
and lemon. 

4. Oysters on the Half Shell 

Method. — Allow 6 oysters on half shell for each plate. 
Arrange the shells on crushed ice on deep plates, with the 
shells radiating out from the center. Place a quarter of a 
lemon and a piece of parsley in the center of each plate. 
Serve with salt, pepper, horseradish, cocktail sauce, or 
Worcestershire sauce. 

6. Scalloped Oysters 

1 pt. oysters 1 c. cracker crumbs 
4 tbsp. oyster liquor 14 C. melted butter 

2 tbsp. milk 1 tsp. salt 
^ c. stale bread crumbs Pepper 

Method. — Mix the bread and the cracker crumbs and 
the butter. Put a thin layer in the bottom of a buttered 
baking-dish, cover with oysters, sprinkle with salt and 
pepper; add half of the. oyster liquor and half of the cream 
or milk. 

Cover with another layer of oysters, add the remainder 
of the liquor and milk and cover with crumbs. Never 
make more than two layers of oysters, for oysters should 
be evenly cooked through. Bake 30 minutes in a hot oven. 
A sprinkling of nutmeg to each layer adds a good flavor. 

6. Lobster a la Newburg 
1 lb. lobster }£ c. cream 

}4 c. butter 2 egg yolks 

3^ tsp. salt Grating of nutmeg 

Cayenne, a few grains }/£ tsp. lemon juice 

Method. — Cut or break up the lobster meat into cubes. 
Melt the butter in a pan,' add the lobster, and cook until 
thoroughly heated. Season with salt, cayenne, and nutmeg 

—17 



258 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

and add the lemon juice. Cook 1 minute; then add the 
thin cream and yolks of eggs well beaten, and stir until 
the sauce thickens. Serve on squares of hot toast, gar- 
nished with parsley and lemon. 

7. Shrimp Wiggle 

4 tbsp. butter l^c. milk 

3 tbsp. flour 1 c. shrimps 

Yl tsp. salt 1 c. canned peas 
Paprika 

Method. — Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk, 
and seasoning. Wash the shrimps, remove the dark vein, 
and break the shrimps into pieces. When the sauce 
thickens add the shrimps to it, also the canned peas drained 
from their liquor and thoroughly rinsed. Cook all 4 or 
5 minutes and serve on squares of toasted bread. Garnish 
with parsley, and a stuffed olive. 

8. Cabbage Slaw 

% c. vinegar 1 small head cabbage 

3 tbsp. sugar 2 tsp. salt 

1 c. sweet cream White pepper 

Method. — Shave the cabbage very fine, place in a dish, 
season with salt and pepper. Stir the sugar into the vinegar 
until all is dissolved; then add the sweet cream gradually 
and stir thoroughly until the mixture thickens. Pour over 
the cabbage and serve in place of a salad or as a garnish 
to accompany fried oysters. 



LESSON 16 

SALADS 

Salads originally consisted of crisp, green vegetables 
dressed with oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper. Today salads 
are made of raw 01 cooked vegetables, fruit, meat, or eggs, 
separately or in combination, with a salad dressing. 

The essentials in salad making are: — 

1. Salads must be cold. All greens used must be 
crisp. 

2. The ingredients in the dressing must be carefully 
blended and not be too strong of either acid or oil. 

3. The whole must be well mixed just before serving. 

4. Materials must be nicely cut and arranged. 
Points in favor of salads as a frequent dish in the diet:— 

1. Salads have considerable food value, since the greens 
used furnish the body with needful mineral salts and fur- 
nish bulk to food. The dressing contains oil and acid. 

2. Vegetable and fruit salads are refreshing and 
appetizing. 

3. Meat salads contain much food value and may be 
substituted for the meat dish. 

4. Salads may be made an economical dish, as much 
left-over food may be used. 

Greens used for garnishing salads are lettuce, water 
cress, parsley, nasturtiums, or chickory. 

Wash greens thoroughly in cold water. If wilted let 
lie in cold water an hour, dry in a towel, roll up carefully 
in a damp cloth, and put on ice until ready to use. Greens 
wilt readily, and the dressing must not be added until just 
before serving. 

(259) 



260 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Classes of salad dressing are : — 

French dresssing, — used with crisp greens and vegetable 
salads. 

Cooked dressing, — used with any kind of salad. 

Mayonnaise dressing, — used with almost any kind of 
salad, but especially with egg, meat, and fish. It is not 
good with fruit salads. 

Oils for Salad Dressings. — Use only the best olive oil 
for salad dressings. Much of the oil sold as olive oil and 
under foreign labels is nothing more than a cotton-seed 




Fig. 39. Tomato and green pepper salad. 

oil made in this country. This is pure and good for many 
purposes, but not for salads, and is easily detected by its 
strong flavor. In most cases foreign labeled goods bring 
higher prices than home brands. Home products are 
usually more economical and of better quality than foreign 
goods, contrary to the opinion of some American women. 

Be sure to read all labels carefully. 

Preparation of Materials for Salads. — 1. Clean the 
greens and vegetables. 



SALADS SOI 

2. Remove all bones, skin, and fat from fish and meat. 

3. Cut up materials into uniform size, not too large. 

4. Chill all materials before combining. 

What to Serve with Salads.— Serve crisp crackers, 
cheese straws, small sandwiches, nutbread, or small slices 
of angel food spread with preserved figs and rolled as a 
jelly roll. 

APPLICATION 

1. French Dressing 

X A tsp. salt 2 tbsp. vinegar 

M tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. vegetable oil 

Method— -Mix ingredients and stir until well blended 
and it thickens slightly. A few drops of onion juice may 
be added. French dressing is more easily prepared than 
any other, and is almost always prepared at the table, as 
greens soon wilt if allowed to stand in the dressing. 

2. Boiled Dressing 

2 tbsp. sugar Dash paprika 

2 tsp. mustard 2 eggs 

2 tbsp. flour 1 c . weak vinegar 

2 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. butter 

Method.— Mix dry ingredients well. Beat eggs well. 
Add the vinegar. Combine wet and dry materials slowly. 
Put all in double boiler and beat with dover beater while 
thickening. When thick and fluffy add the butter and re- 
move from fire. Serve cold. Whipped cream may be added 
just before serving. 

3. Boiled Dressing 

1 c - weak vinegar y 2 tbsp. salt 

Yolk 6 eggs y 2 tbsp. mustard 

£ c. sugar Red pepper, a pinch 

1 tbsp. butter 1 c . whipped cream 

Method.— Heat the vinegar and butter in a double 
boiler. Beat yolks in a bowl slightly. Mix mustard, 
sugar, salt, and pepper together, and add to yolks; beat 



262 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

well. When vinegar is hot, pour it slowly over the beaten 
yolks in the bowl, stirring constantly to prevent cooking 
of eggs, making a smooth mixture. Return all to double 
boiler and cook until thick, stirring while it thickens. This 
dressing may be kept several days or a week if placed in 
glass jars and kept in a cool place. Just before using add 
whipped cream. 

(Basis for 2 girls, x /z rule.) 

4. Mayonnaise Dressing* 

1 tsp. mustard 1 egg (yolk) 

1 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. lemon juice 

1 tsp. powdered sugar 2 tbsp. vinegar 

A few grains cayenne 1 Y% c. vegetable oil 

Method. — Mix the dry ingredients, add the egg yolk, 
and when well beaten add Y2 teaspoonful of vinegar. Add 
a drop or two of olive oil, stir constantly. Continue add- 
ing oil a few drops at a time as the mixture thickens and 
becomes of uniform consistency. When the mixture be- 
comes quite thick, add lemon juice or vinegar alternately 

with the oil, until all is used, always beating the mixture. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) 

5. Thousand Island Dressing 

1 c. mayonnaise 1 tbsp. chopped pimentos 

}/2 c. olive oil 1 tbsp. chopped green peppers 

1 tbsp. tarragon vinegar 1 cooked egg yolk sifted 

14 tsp. paprika 1 tbsp. walnut catsup 

1 tbsp. chopped chives Y§ c. chili sauce 

Method. — Make the mayonnaise and keep in a cold 

place until ready to use. Chop the ingredients fine, blend 

with the oil and seasoning and keep cold. When ready to 

use, add the chopped mixture to the mayonnaise quickly 

and carefully and serve on quarters of clean crisp heads of 

lettuce. 

*To prevent mayonnaise dressing from separating, mix 3 tbsp. of cornstarch 
and 1 tsp. of salt with J^ c. of cold water. Add % c. boiling water. Cook till 
smooth and thick. Cool, and fold into the finished mayonnaise. 



SALADS 263 

SALAD SUGGESTIONS 

Mayonnaise, or cooked, dressing may be used with the 
following combinations : — 

1. 1 c. apples, 1 c. celery, Y 2 c. walnuts (Waldorf salad). 

2. 1 c pineapple, 1 c. bananas, Y2 c. cherries. 

3. Bananas rolled in chopped nuts. 

4. Prunes stuffed with pecans, whipped cream. 

5. 1 c. celery, 1 c. apples, green peppers. 

6. 1 c. grapefruit, 1 c. marshmallows, 1 c. white grapes, l /i c. 
nuts. 

7. 1 c. pineapple, 1 c. marshmallows, 1 c. white grapes, % c. 
nuts. 

8. 1 c. oranges, 1 c. Bermuda onions. 

9. 1 c. peas, 1 c. cheese, cut in small cubes. 

10. 1 c. lobster, 1 c. celery. 

11. x /l pt. oysters, 3 grapefruits. 

12. 1 chicken, an equal amount of celery (about 1^ c), \i c. 
olives, Yi c. nuts. 

13. 1 c. cooked chicken, 1 cucumber, 1 c. walnuts, 1 c. peas. 
14. ' Sweetbreads, 1 pt., equal amount of cucumbers. 

15. 1 c. olives cut lengthwise, 1 c. almonds cut the same. 

16. Canned pears cut in halves, shredded almonds. Place 
almonds in the pears like quills in a porcupine. Serve on 
lettuce, one for each guest. 

17. 2 c. salmon, 1 c. celery, cut fine, Y doz. sour pickles. 

18. Head lettuce and Roquefort cheese. 

19. Cooked asparagus, rings of green peppers, slices of pimentos. 

20. Sliced hard-boiled eggs, cucumbers, celery, and lettuce. 

21. 2 c. cold string beans, 1 tsp. chives cut fine, 3^ doz. radishes 
sliced thin. 

22. 1 can strained tomatoes, % box gelatine, 1 tsp. salt, 1 tsp. 
powdered sugar. Make a jelly, put into molds, serve on 
lettuce. 

23. Dressing for head lettuce: 1 tsp. parsley chopped fine, 1 
tsp. beets, chopped fine, 1 egg hard-boiled cut fine, added to 
mayonnaise, also a little vinegar, paprika, and chili sauce. 

24. 1 pt. beets, 1 pt. cabbage, ^ c. horseradish. 



LESSON 17 

CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 

Cakes are divided into two classes: (1) Cakes without 
butter; examples, sponge cake, angel food, sunshine cake. 
(2) Cakes with butter; examples, cup and pound cakes. 

Things Essential in Cake-Making. — 1. Use only the 
best ingredients, — fresh eggs, fine granulated sugar, best 
butter, and the best pastry flour. 

2. Use accurate measures. 

3. Never grease pans for cakes without butter. Grease 
pans for cakes with butter. 

4. Have a uniform heat for cake-baking. 

5. Watch the cake during the baking. 

Utensils for Mixing. — Use a deep, earthen mixing-bowl 
and a slotted wooden spoon. 

General Method for Cakes without Butter. — Separate 
the yolks and whites of eggs. Beat the yolks until lemon- 
Cwlored and thick; add the sifted sugar slowly while beating. 
Add the flavoring; then fold in the whites beaten stiff and 
dry. Sift the flour several times, cut and fold it into the 
mixture, until all is well blended. Pour into a pan wet 
with water and kept for cakes of this class. 

Sponge cakes and others of the class are raised mainly 
by air and steam and, containing many eggs, need a mod- 
erate oven. 

Baking. — Oven test for sponge cake: Turns white 
paper light yellow in 5 minutes. 

Put the cake in the center of the lower rack in the oven 
at first. Later move above if the oven does not brown 

(264) 



CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 265 

enough. Do not open the oven door too much, and avoid 
any jar or the cake may fall. 

The Baking of Cakes.— Divide baking time into quar- 
ters : — 

1st quarter y — the mixture rises. 

2nd quarter, — it continues rising, begins to brown. 

3rd quarter — it continues to brown. 

4th quarter, — it finishes baking, settles and shrinks from 
the pan. 

If oven is too hot, cover cake with tent made of paper, 
turn gas down or check fire, or place a pan of cold water 
in oven. Cake should not be moved in oven before it has 
risen to full height. 

Tests for Cake. — 1. Cake is done when it shrinks from 
the sides of the pan. 

2. Press the top of the cake with the finger; if it springs 
back into place it is done. 

3. Insert a small straw in the center of the cake; if 
it comes out clean and dry, the cake is done. 

Care after Baking. — Remove cake from the pan as 
soon as it is baked. Run a knife around the edge and 
invert the pan on a wire cooler or board covered with a 
cloth. 

Note. — If cake sticks to the pan, cover the bottom of 
the pan with a cold damp cloth for a few minutes. 

APPLICATION 

1. Sponge Cake 
Yolks 6 eggs Whites 6 eggs 

1 c. sugar Grated rind Y 2 lemon 

1 tbsp. lemon juice 1 c. flour 

\i tsp. salt 2 tbsp. water 

Method. — Beat the yolks until lemon-colored and thick; 
add the sugar gradually, continue beating; add water, 



26$ DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

lemon juice, and rind. Fold in the whites of the eggs 
beaten to a stiff froth. Cut and fold in the flour mixed 
and sifted with the salt. Bake in a slow oven 1 hour in a 
deep, narrow pan. 

{Boms far 2 girls, }/i rule.) 

2. Cheap Sponge Cake 

1 c. sugar 1 tbsp. lemon juice 
5 tbsp. cold water lj^c. flour 

2 eggs 2 tsp. baking powder 

Method, — Beat the yolks thick, add the sugar and con- 
tinue beating, and then gradually add the water and lemon 
juice. Mix and sift the baking powder with the flour 
and add to the yolks. Beat the egg whites until stiff, and 
carefully fold into the cake mixture. Bake in an unbut- 
tered tin in a moderate oven. 

The baking powder takes the place of some eggs as a 

leaven. 

3. Angel Food 

Whites 1 doz. eggs M tsp. salt 

\y 2 c. sugar 1 c. flour 

1 tsp. cream of tartar 1 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Beat the whites of the eggs until frothy, add 
the cream of tartar, and continue beating until eggs are 
stiff. Sift the sugar several times and then add gradually 
to the beaten eggs. Sift the flour and salt four or six 
times; then fold into the mixture, and lastly add the vanilla. 
Bake in an unbuttered pan in a moderate oven for 45 to 
50 minutes. 

4. Sunshine Cake 
Whites 10 eggs 1 tsp. lemon juice 

1 }/2 c. powdered sugar 1 c. flour 

Yolks of 6 eggs 1 tsp. cream of tartar 

Method. — Beat whites of eggs until stiff and dry, add 
sugar gradually and continue beating; then add the yolks 
beaten until thick and lemon-colored, add the extract. 



CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 267 

Cut in the flour sifted with the cream of tartar. Bake 
50 minutes in a moderate oven in an angel cake pan. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 

6. Jelly Roll 

3 eggs 1 tsp. baking powder 

1 c. sugar }4 tsp. salt 

1 tsp. milk 1 c. flour 

Jelly 1 tbsp. melted butter 

Method. — Beat eggs until light, add the sugar gradually, 

and then milk, flour, salt, baking powder, and melted 

butter. Line a dripping pan with buttered or oil paper, 

turn in the mixture, spread evenly, bake 12 minutes in a 

moderate oven. When baked turn on a cloth covered with 

powdered sugar. Cut a thin strip off of sides and ends 

of cake, spread with jelly while still hot, and roll up cake 

by means of the cloth. Keep roll in shape until cake cools. 

Rolling must be done quickly while cake is hot, to prevent 

cracking. 

6. Uncooked Frosting 

2 egg whites 1 tsp. vanilla 

1 tbsp. water 2 c. powdered sugar 

Method. — Put water and egg whites in a deep dish and 
gradually add the sugar and vanilla; beat constantly until 
the frosting is of the consistency to spread without running. 
More or less than 2 cups of sugar may be required, depend- 
ing on the size of the eggs. 

Chocolate uncooked frosting is made by adding 2 
squares of melted chocolate to the above rule when about 
half of the sugar is in. 



LESSON 18 

CAKES WITH BUTTER 

Method of Mixing Cakes with Butter. — Measure ingre- 
dients, dry first and then the liquids and butter. Cream 
the butter; then add the sugar and cream together until 
the sugar is dissolved and the mixture is creamy. Beat 
egg yolks with a Dover beater. Beat the whites with an 
egg whip. Add beaten yolks to creamed mixture; then add 
liquid alternately with sifted flour, to keep the mixture 
about the same consistency. If spices are used, sift in 
with the flour. If fruit or nuts are used, cover them with 
flour to prevent them from sticking together and settling 
to the bottom. Add the whites beaten stiff at the last, by 
cutting and folding in very carefully ; add the flavoring and 
baking powder at the same time. Do not stir the mixture 
after the egg whites are in. Why? 

Pans for Butter Cakes. — Grease pans thoroughly for 
butter cakes, sift a little flour in the pan after it is greased. 
See that the corners of the pan are well greased. Fill the 
pans only two-thirds full of the cake mixture. 

Oven Test for Butter Cakes. — White paper turns light 
brown in 5 minutes. Butter cakes require a hotter oven 
than those without butter. If the oven gets too hot, 
place a cover of paper o\«er the cake or set a pan of cold 
water in the oven. 

Frosting a Cake. — Cake may be frosted as soon as 
baked, if desired. Either cooked or uncooked frostings 
may be used for either class of cakes; but for cakes without 
butter, uncooked frosting is very good and keeps the cake 
more moist. 

(268) 



CAKES WITH BUTTER 269 

General Proportions of Ingredients. — For butter cakes 
use — 

3^ to }/2 as much butter as sugar. 

}/2 as much liquid as flour. 

Regard butter or shortening as so much liquid. Sour 
milk or molasses does not thin a mixture as much as sweet 
milk or water. Mixtures for fruit must be a little stiffer 
than those without. The proportion of baking powder and 
flour is the same as in quick breads, but the more eggs in a 
cake the less baking powder is needed. 

Variations for Plain Butter Cakes. — Many kinds of 
butter cakes may be made from a plain-cake recipe. The 
following are examples: — 

1. White cake, — use 3 egg whites. 

2. Yellow cake, — use 4 egg yolks. 

3. Chocolate cake, — add one ounce melted chocolate (use less 
flour). 

4. Spice cake, — add 3^ tsp. cinnamon, 3^ tsp. mixed allspice, 
nutmeg, and cloves. 

5. Fruit cake, — add 3^ c. raisins, 34 c. currants, 34 c. cut citron. 

6. Nut cake, — add Yi c. cut walnuts or almonds. 

Make in layers and use different fillings and frostings. If bread 
flour is used, use a little less than when pastry flour is used. 

APPLICATION 

1. Plain Cake 

34 c. butter 3^ c. milk 

Yl c. sugar 13^ c. flour 

34 tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder 

1 egg 1 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Cream the butter, add sugar gradually, and 
egg well beaten. Sift the flour and add alternately with the 
milk. Then add the vanilla, and lastly fold in the baking 
powder, sifted over the top. Bake 30 to 40 minutes in a 
shallow pan. This rule may be varied in many ways, as 
stated above. 

(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 



270 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

2. Cup Cakes 

% c. butter 1 c. milk 

2 c. sugar 3 c. flour 

4 eggs 4 tsp. baking powder 

1 tsp. vanilla or lemon 

• Method. — Cream the butter and sugar, add yolks of 
eggs, beat hard, add the milk, and then the flour mixed and 
sifted with the baking powder. Fold in the beaten whites, 
add flavoring, and bake in individual tins. Cover with 
uncooked frosting. Makes 3 dozen cakes. 
(Basis for 2 girls, x /± rule.) 

3. Lemon Queens 

3^ c. butter 1 c. flour 

1 c. sugar 2 tsp. baking powder 

4 eggs 1 tbsp. lemon juice 

Grated rind of 1 lemon 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar, add eggs 
one at a time without beating. Beat mixture hard after 
adding each egg. Add flour, baking powder, and lemon 
juice. Bake 25 minutes in small muffin pans. Frost with 
uncooked frosting or orange frosting. Makes 16 cakes. 

(Basis fo? 2 girls, \i rule.) 

4. Orange Frosting 

2 egg yolks 1 tsp. lemon juice 

5 tbsp. orange juice 2 c. powdered sugar 

1 tbsp. grated orange rind 

Method. — Mix orange and lemon juice with rind and 
let stand 10 minutes; then strain it. Add to egg yolks, 
slowly add powdered sugar, and beat until all is added and 
of the right consistency to spread. 



LESSON 19 

LAYER CAKES 

Time. — Bake layer cakes 15 to 30 minutes. 
Points of a Good Cake. — 1. A good cake is smooth on 
top and baked to an even brown. 

2. Cake rounds slightly toward the center, but does 
not rise abruptly in the center, crack on top, or sink at the 
edges. If any of these difficulties occurs, either the cake 
has been baked too rapidly or too much flour was used. 

3. The inside of a good cake is fine, even grained, 
moist but not sticky, and of the same texture throughout. 
Coarse-grained cake is caused either by a lack of beating 
or by too slow an oven. 

APPLICATION 

1. Spanish Chocolate Cake 

J^ c. butter 1 tsp. vanilla 

1^ c. sugar 2 sq. choc, melted 

4 eggs 5 tbsp. boiling water 

14, c milk or water 1 M sc. c. flour 

4 tsp. baking powder 

Method. — Melt the chocolate, add the boiling water. 
Cream the butter, add sugar, and cream all thoroughly. 
Add yolks, and beat hard; then add the milk, melted 
chocolate, and gradually the flour. Beat vigorously. 
Fold in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs, vanilla, and baking 
powder. Mix quickly and bake in two layers in a moderate 
oven. Frost with chocolate or caramel frosting. 

(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 

(271) 



272 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

2. White Layer Cake 

}/2 c. butter 3 c. flour 

2 c. sugar 4 egg whites or 

1 c. water or milk 2 whole eggs 

1 tsp. vanilla 6 tsp. baking powder 

Method. — Same as for Chocolate Cake. Makes 3 layers. 
(Basis for 2 girls, x /% rule.) 

3. Cooked Frosting 

1 c. sugar 1 egg white 

]/2 c. water 1 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Boil sugar and water together without stir- 
ring until it spins a thread when tested. Pour slowly over 
stiffly beaten egg white. Beat until it holds its shape when 
dropped from the spoon. Add flavoring, and spread on 

the cake. 

4. Chocolate Frosting 

Method. — Add 2 squares melted chocolate to Cooked 

Frosting. 

6. Caramel Filling 
2 c. dark brown sugar 14 c. cream 

1 c. white sugar l /i c. butter 

1 c. hot water 

Method. — Boil sugar and water together until it ropes; 
then add the cream and butter and cook 4 or 5 minutes 
longer. Spread between layers and on top. Good with 
Spanish Chocolate Cake. 

6. Cocoanut Filling 

Method. — Use uncooked frosting rule, add freshly 
grated cocoanut, and spread thick between layers and on top. 

7. Fig Filling 
3^2 lb. figs chopped fine Y /i c. boiling water 

14 c. sugar 1 tbsp. lemon juice 

Method. — Mix ingredients in the order given, and cook 
in a double boiler until thick enough to spread. Spread 
^rhile hot. Figs can be put through a meat chopper. 



LESSON 20 

LOAF CAKES 

Review proportions for cakes. 

Review methods of making cakes with and without 
butter. 

Review oven tests. 

Time for baking loaf cakes: 40 to 60 minutes. 

APPLICATION 

1. Gold Cake 

l /i c. butter 5 egg yolks 

Yi c. sugar 1 sc. c. flour 

34 c. milk \ l A tsp. baking powder 

1 tsp. orange extract 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, 
then the yolks of eggs beaten until thick and lemon-colored. 
Mix and sift the baking powder with the flour, add alter- 
nately with the milk to the butter mixture. Bake 40 to 
45 minutes in a deep loaf pan. 

(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.) 

2. Caramel Cake 
1 c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla 

Y c butter 2 c. flour 

Yz c. milk 5 egg whites 

13/2 tsp. baking powder 

Method. — Same as any butter cake, folding beaten 
whites in last. Bake in a shallow loaf cake pan 40 to 45 
minutes in a moderate oven. Frost with Caramel Frost- 
ing (Lesson 19). 

{Basis for 2, 34 rule.) 

—18 (273^ 



274 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

3, Nut Cakt> 

1 Yi c. sugar 1 c. walnuts 

Y c. butter 4 egg whites 

y± c. cold water 4 tsp. baking powder 

2 c. flour 1 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Cream butter and sugar, add the cold water, 
the flour, half of the beaten egg whites, then the nuts cut 
and floured, the rest of the beaten egg, and lastly the baking 
powder and the flavoring. Bake in an oblong loaf cake 
pan for 50 minutes. Frost with white uncooked frosting, 

{Basis for 2, Y Tide,) 

4. Spiced Loaf Cake 

Y c. butter 2 c. flour 

1 c. brown sugar 1 tsp. soda 

Y c. molasses 1 tsp. cinnamon 

2 eggs ^ Y2 tsp. salt 
% c. raisins Y tsp. cloves 

Y c. strong coffee Y c. currants 

Method. — Cream butter and sugar, add the molasses 
and well beaten eggs. Sift the flour, soda, and spices 
together, add }/2 the flour to the batter, and then the fruit, 
which has been cut and floured. Add the coffee, finally 
the balance of the flour. Bake in a loaf cake pan in a 
moderate oven for 1 hour. 

6. Potato Cake 
1 c. butter 2 c. sugar 

1 c. almonds Y c. milk or cream 

1 tsp. cinnamon Y tsp. cloves 

Y tsp. nutmeg lYc. flour 

2 tsp. baking powder Y cake melted chocolate 
1 c. mashed potatoes 4 eggs 

Method. — Cream butter and sugar, add the fineiv 
mashed potatoes while warm, then the yolks of eggs well 
beaten, then the milk or cream, melted chocolate, and 
spices. Mix and sift the flour and baking powder, cut 
nuts fine and dredge with flour. Add flour and nuts to the 
batter, and lastly the whites of the eggs beaten stiff. Bake 



LOAF CAKES 275 

in square loaf cake pan 50 to 60 minutes in a moderate 
oven. This is a very large cake. Frost with Chocolate 
Frosting. 

6. Fig or Date Cake 
1 c. raisins ^ c. butter 

1 c. figs or dates 1 c. sugar 

1 c. walnuts 2 egg yolks 

1 c. boiling water 3 egg whites 

1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon 

1 tsp. vanilla 2 c. flour 

yi tsp. allspice and cloves 

Method. — Look over and chop the raisins, figs, or dates, 
and pour boiling water (in which has been dissolved the 
soda) over them. Cream the butter and sugar, add the 
beaten egg yolks, then the spices and fruit with the water, 
then the flour, fold in the beaten whites, and add vanilla. 
Bake 1 hour in a loaf cake pan in a moderate oven. Frost 
with White Frosting. 

7. Eggless Cake 

2 c. sugar 1 c. currants 
2 c. water 1 tsp. cloves 
z /i c. lard 1 tsp. allspice 
1 c. raisins 1 tsp. nutmeg 

1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon 

3}/2 c. flour 2 tsp. baking powder 

1 c. walnuts 14 tsp. salt 

Method. — Put the sugar, water, lard, fruit, and spices 
together in a saucepan and cook for 5 minutes. Let cool 
a little and then add 1 tsp. soda dissolved in a little hot 
water. Add the baking powder and salt to the flour and 
sift the flour into the cooled mixture; add the walnuts; 
beat well, and bake in a slow oven 45 to 50 minutes. This 
is a large cake and keeps a long time. 



LESSON 21 

HOT DESSERTS— PUDDINGS 

Rich desserts are too heavy to use with a hearty dinner 
and should be used only to form a part of the meal or lunch. 
For the most part, fruit is best for dessert with a dinner. 

Methods of Cooking. — Hot desserts are either steamed 
or baked. Steaming is done in a steamer over boiling 
water (moist steaming), or in a double boiler (dry steaming). 
Moist steaming is required for heavy puddings, and for 
those that contain citron or fruit. Dry steaming is neces- 
sary for custard, and insures a more even cooking. Steaming 
is a slow process and requires several hours. 

Preparation of Materials. — Suet. — Break into small 
pieces, remove the membranes, and chop on a board. 
Dredge with flour to prevent suet from being sticky. 

To Clean Raisins. — Look over and pick out any imper- 
fect ones and stems. Wash in a strainer set in a bowl of 
water. Drain, and cut into small pieces. Always dredge 
with flour before adding to a batter; this prevents the raisins 
from sticking together. If raisins are not seeded when pur- 
chased, pour boiling water over a few at a time, drain, and 
press out seeds clean before cutting up the raisins. 

To Clean Currants. — Wash currants thoroughly in a 
strainer in a bowl of warm water. Rub them well and 
change the water several times until it remains clean and 
all the grit and fine stems are removed. Drain, and dry 
between towels. Dredge with flour. 

Citron. — Cut up citron into small pieces; dredge slightly 
with flour before adding to a mixture. 

(276) 



PUDDINGS m 

APPLICATION 

1. Suet Pudding 

\ c. suet cut fine 1 y tsp. salt 

1 c molasses y tsp. ginger 

1 c. milk y 2 tsp. cloves 

3 c. flour y 2 tsp. nutmeg 

1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon 
Yz c raisins y c. currants 

Method. — Mix and sift the dry materials, add the 
raisins and currants cut fine and floured. Add the molas- 
ses and milk to the suet. Add wet mixture to dry. Pour 
in buttered mold, cover, and steam 3 hours. Serve hot 
with a pudding sauce. 

(Basis for 2, y rule.) 

2. Bread Pudding 

2 c. stale bread crumbs 2 eggs 

1 qt. scalded milk y tsp. salt 

y c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla or 
M c. melted butter y tsp. spice 

Yz c. raisins \y c . currants 

Method. — Soak bread crumbs in milk, let cool, add the 
sugar, butter, eggs slightly beaten, salt and flavoring, and 
the raisins and currants. Bake 1 hour in a buttered dish 
in a slow oven as for custards. Do not us. outside crusts. 

(Basis for 2, y rule.) 

3. Queen's Pudding 

Metliod. — Spread plain Bread Pudding with currant or 
plum jelly and then add a meringue, as for Lemon Pie. Set 
in oven to brown. 

4. Apple Tapioca 

1 c. Pearl or Minute tapioca y 2 tsp. salt 

2 c. cold water 8 sour apples 
2% c. boiling water y c. sugar 

Method. — Soak the tapioca in cold water an hour or 
more, drain, and add the boiling water and salt. Cook in 
double boiler until transparent. Core, pare, and slice the 



278 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

apples, put in buttered baking-dish, cover with sugar, then 
with tapioca. Bake in a moderate oven until the apples 
are done. Serve with sugar and cream. Minute tapioca 
does not require soaking. 

(Basis for 2, l /% rule.) 

5. Date Pudding 

2 eggs 1 tsp. baking powder 
3^2 c. sugar 1 lb. dates 

3 hp. tsp. flour 1 c. walnuts 

1 c. whipped cream 

Method. — Beat eggs separately until very light; add 
sugar to the beaten yolks; cut the dates and walnuts up 
fine, flour thoroughly, and add to the egg mixture. Fold 
in lightly the remainder of the flour, the stiffly beaten 
whites of the eggs, and the baking powder. Bake in a 
moderate oven Y2 hour, and as soon as taken from the oven 
pour over it the whipped cream. Serve while hot. 

6. Snow Ball Pudding 

}4, c. butter ^2 c. cornstarch 

3^2 c. sugar 3 tsp. baking powder 

1 c. flour }/i c. milk 

4 eggs (whites) 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar. Sift the 
dry ingredients three times, add to the butter mixture 
alternately with the milk to keep an even consistency. 
Fold in the beaten whites, put all in greased molds, steam 
1 hour. Roll in powdered sugar and serve hot with Berry 
Sauce. Makes 12 cups. 

7. Plain Steamed Pudding 

1 c. molasses 1 egg 

1 c. warm water 23^ c. flour 

1 c. chopped raisins 1 tsp. soda 

Method. — Sift the soda with the flour, clean and chop 
the raisins, and add the flour. Beat the egg, add the 
warm water and molasses. Combine wet mixture with 



HOT DESSERTS 279 

dry. Put in buttered molds and steam 2^ hours. This 
is less expensive than suet pudding. 

8. Plain Sauce 

1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. flour 

3 tbsp. butter 1 c. water 

Method. — Boil all together until thick, like sirup. Add 
juice of 1 lemon for a sour sauce. 
(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 

9. Berry Sauce 

Y c. butter 1 egg yolk 

13^ c. powdered sugar 1 c. mashed berries 

Method. — Cream the butter, add sugar and cream, then 
the beaten egg yolk, and berries. 

10. Hard Sauce 

YL c. butter % tsp. vanilla 

1 c. powdered sugar Y tsp. lemon extract 

Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, 
add the vanilla, and work to keep sauce creamy. Beat 
until light and creamy. Set in ice box to harden. Serve 

cold. 

11. Foamy Sauce 

Y c. hot milk 2 egg whites 

1 c. powdered sugar 1 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Beat whites stiff and dry, add sugar gradually, 
beat hard, add the hot milk and vanilla, beat with Dover 
beater 2 minutes. Serve at once. 

12. Chocolate Sauce 
1 Y c. water 1 tbsp. cornstarch 

Y c. sugar Y c. cold water 
6 tbsp. grated chocolate Pinch of salt 

Y tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Boil sugar and water 4 to 5 minutes to make 
a sirup. Mix chocolate, starch, and Y^ cup cold water; add 
the salt, then the hot sirup, and cook 3 minutes. Flavor, 
and serve hot. 



LESSON 22 

COLD DESSERTS 

General review. 

APPLICATION 

1. Floating Island 

1^5 c. scalding milk Y% tsp. salt 

3 eggs (yolks) 3 egg whites 

% c. sugar 3^ tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Scald the milk, beat the whites until stiff and 
dry. Fold in 2 tbsp. sugar, and carefully cook whites in the 
hot milk 2 or 3 minutes. Remove them with a large spoon 
to a serving dish. Make a custard of the other ingredients, 
the same as boiled custard. Cook until it coats the spoon. 
Remove at once, add the flavoring, and pour around the 
cooked whites. Serve cold. 

(Basis for 2 girls, x /$ rule.) 

2. Chocolate Cream Pudding 



2 c. scalded milk 


3^ c. cold milk 


5 tbsp. cornstarch 


13^ sq. Baker's chocolate 


l /2 c. sugar 


3 tbsp. hot water 


}/i tsp. salt 


Whites 3 eggs 




1 tsp. vanilla 



Method. — Mix the cornstarch, sugar, and salt, add the 
cold milk, stir thoroughly, and then add to the scalded 
milk. Cook in a double boiler 8 to 10 minutes, stirring 
constantly until custard thickens. Melt the chocolate in 
the hot water, stir until smooth, and then add to the mix- 
ture. Add the stiffly beaten whites and vanilla. Mold, 
chill, and serve. 

{Basis for 2, % rule.) 



(2sn\ 



COLD DESSERTS 281 

3. Prune Whip 
2 c prunes ^ c. sugar 

2 egg whites 1 tsp. lemon juice 

Method. — Pick over and wash the prunes well, and let 
soak several hours in cold water to cover them. Cook in 
the same water until soft, remove the stones and rub the 
prunes through a strainer. Add the sugar, and cook 5 
minutes to the consistency of marmalade. Beat the whites 
until stiff, add the prune mixture when cold, together with 
the lemon juice. Pile lightly in a buttered pudding dish 
and bake in a slow oven about 15 or 20 minutes. Serve 
cold with a boiled custard. 

{Basis for 2 gi^ls, Y% rule.) 

4. Cornstarch Pudding 

2 tbsp. cornstarch 2 eggs 

1 qt. milk 1 tsp. butter 

4 tbsp. sugar Pinch salt 

Method. — Mix the cornstarch with a small amount of 
milk and stir until a smooth paste. Heat the remainder of 
the milk in a double boiler. When scalded, add the hot 
milk to the paste mixture. Add the sugar and salt. Stir 
till the sugar is dissolved. Then pour slowly into the well 
beaten eggs. Return to the boiler and cook a few minutes 
until the mixture thickens, stirring constantly. Cool and 
add the flavoring, turn into molds, and serve cold with 
boiled custard, cream, or chocolate sauce. 



LESSON 23 

SANDWICHES 

Sandwiches form the basis of most lunches, whether it 
is the simple lunch put up for the school girl or the more 
elaborate picnic basket. 

Materials for Sandwiches. — Bread to cut well must be 
at least a day old, when it makes the best sandwiches. 
Some delicious sandwiches, however, may be* made with 
new bread. The kinds of bread used are white, brown, 
rye, whole wheat, corn or nut bread, or a combination of two 
or more. 

The butter, to spread more easily and evenly, must be 
creamed, as in cake-making. 

The fillings used determine the kind of sandwich, and a 
great variety is made from cooked (warm or cold) meat, 
fish, fresh greens, eggs, nuts, cheese, fruits, pickles, and 
jellies. Mayonnaise and cooked salad dressings are used 
to combine many of the materials used for fillings. 

Shapes. — Sandwiches are made in a variety of shapes 
and cut very thin. Those made for picnics or a child's 
lunch are best made of bread cut about }/± inch thick and 
cut in squares, triangles, oblongs, or circles, with substantial 
fillings. 

For afternoon teas, slices of bread are cut not over }/$ 
inch thick with a sharp knife, and the slices are then cut 
into different shapes with fancy cutters. The sweet fillings, 
like jellies and marmalades, are best adapted to serve at 
small teas. 

Methods of Making. — Cut the bread for sandwiches 
with a sharp knife and make all slices of uniform thinness. 

(282) 



SANDWICHES 283 

Remove the crust of the bread and spread each slice with 
the creamed butter before cutting. If the sandwiches are 
to be cut with fancy cutters, it is best to shape before 




Fig. 40. Sandwiches, showing various shapes. 

spreading, in order not to waste any butter. Spread half of 
the number of slices with the filling to be used, and fit the 
remaining slices on top. 

To keep sandwiches moist when they are prepared 
several hours before they are served, wrap them in a damp 
napkin until ready to use, or wrap them in paraffin paper. 
Keep in a cool place. 

Serving. — Serve sandwiches piled neatly on a doily 
on a plate or basket, garnished with parsley, lemon, celery 
tips or nasturtium leaves or blossoms. 

Suggestions for Sandwiches. — Many dainty and deli- 
cious combinations are possible in sandwiches. The 
following are suggested : — 



284 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

1. Equal parts of finely cut nuts and grated cheese with salad 
dressing. 

2. Equal parts of grated cheese and olives cut fine mixed with 
mayonnaise. 

3. Equal parts of cream cheese and pimento. 

4. Ham, veal, or sweet breads sliced thin or minced fine with 
boiled egg cut fine. 

5. Beef or tongue chopped fine with Worcestershire or horseradish 
sauce. 

6. Raisins and nuts chopped fine and moistened with grape juice- 

7. Nasturtium blossoms and stems and bread and butter packed 
in a box over night to perfume the bread. Garnish with fresh 
blossoms. 

8. Crushed maple sugar with thick cream with whole-wheat bread, 
or nut bread. 

9. Marmalade and chopped nuts on white bread or sponge drops. 

10. Sardines (split and boned), lemon juice and paprika. 

11. Peanuts chopped and salted with salad dressing, with white or 
wholewheat nut bread. 

12. Rye bread, chives, and Swiss cheese. 

13. Cut fresh bread while warm, spread with a sweet mixture, roll 
up and tie with ribbon. 

14. Chopped green peppers with mayonnaise dressing. 

15. Fresh crisp lettuce with mayonnaise dressing. 

16. Cold chicken or lobster, chopped, seasoned, and moistened 
with lemon juice or salad dressing. 

17. Preserved canton ginger in thin slices with plain bread and 
butter. 

18. White bread, cold chicken, lettuce, slice ripe tomato. 

19. Alternate about 6 layers of white and graham bread. Use nut 
or fruit filling and slice across. 

20. 3^ CU P- chopped dates, 34 chopped apple, salad dressing; cut in 
different shapes. 

Hot Sandwiches 

21. Chicken liver with brown sauce and toast. 

22. Brown bread, hot fried oysters, and Tartar sauce. 

23. Clubhouse, — freshly made toast, lettuce, chicken, and hot 
bacon with mayonnaise. 

24. Caviar, onion juice, lemon juice, with rounds of toast. 

25. Combination, — freshly-made toast, chicken, tongue, bacon, 
fresh tomato and lettuce, with mayonnaise dressing. 

APPLICATION 
Demonstrate cutting bread thin and in fancy shapes. 



SANDWICHES 235 

1. Egg Sandwich 

12 slices of bread 1 tsp. salt 

6 egg yolks, hard-boiled 2 tbsp. melted butter 

Method. — Mash the hard-boiled yolks through a strainer, 
season with salt, and moisten with the melted butter to 
right consistency to spread. Cut and trim the bread to 
the shape desired, spread half pieces with mixture, cover 
with the other half of bread. Boiled dressing may be 
used with the mixture. 

(Basis for 2 girls, }/§ rule.) 

2. Chopped Meat Sandwich 

Method. — Chop remnants of cold veal, beef, pork, or 
fowl; put through a meat cutter, moisten with rich meat 
stock; season with salt, pepper, celery salt and salad dress- 
ing. Spread on bread. 

3. Raw Beef Sandwich 

Method. — Scrape beef, cut from the round, using a 
silver fork. Scrape first on one side and then on the other 
to remove the soft part of the meat. Season with salt 
and a very small amount of pepper. Spread between thin 
slices of bread. This may be toasted to a delicate brown 
on both sides. 

(Basis for 2 girls, 2 slices of bread.) 



LESSON 24 

FROZEN MIXTURES— ICES 

Classes of Frozen Mixtures. — There are two general 
classes of frozen mixtures made in a freezer; namely, ices 
and ice creams. By varying the ingredients many different 
varieties may be produced in each class. 

Ices are frozen mixtures of fruit juice, water, and sugar, 
with or without eggs. They are named from the kind of 
fruit juice used for flavoring. Ices include the following 
frozen mixtures: — 

1. Water ice, which is made from fruit juice diluted 
with water, sweetened, and frozen quite firm. Water ice 
is served principally with the meat course at dinners. 

2. Frappe is a water ice, half frozen and of granular 
consistency obtained by using an equal quantity of salt 
and ice in freezing. 

3. Punch is a frappe with the addition of wines, fruit, 
or charged water. 

4. Sherbet is made by adding either a little gelatin or 
the beaten whites of eggs to water ice. When eggs arc 
used, they are added when the mixture is nearly frozen, 
and the freezing is continued until the mixture is firm ana 
will hold its shape when served. 

5. Milk sherbet is made by substituting milk for water 
in water ice. Care must be taken to thoroughly dissolve 
the sugar in the fruit juice before adding the milk, to pre- 
vent the mixture from curdling. 

Sherbets are richer than water ices, and are served for 
desserts, like ice cream. 

(286) 



WtilS hi 

The Freezing Mixture. — Ice and salt form a freezing 
mixture. The salt thaws the ice, consuming heat, and 
makes a brine several degrees below the freezing point. 
This draws the heat from the contents of the metal can 
and causes the freezing. The smaller the pieces of ice and 
the more salt used, the more rapidly the mixture freezes. 
If too much salt is used, the frozen mixture has a coarse, 
granular consistency, as in frappe. One part of salt to 
three parts of ice freezes a smooth, fine-grained cream mix- 
ture. Equal parts of salt and ice freeze sherbets and water 
ice to the right consistency. 

Preparing the Ice. — Pound the ice in a burlap bag with 
a wooden mallet or an ax until it is in small pieces of about 
uniform size. Large pieces may interfere with the smooth 
turning of the freezer. Prepare enough ice to more than 
fill the freezer, and have plenty to pack the can in until 
time to serve. 

The Freezer. — A satisfactory freezer is one that is 
strongly built, that turns easily, and that is free from rust. 
If a freezer is not accessible, one may be made from a tin 
can or pail together with a wooden bucket or tub for the 
cracked ice. The can must be turned constantly during 
the freezing process the same as with a freezer. Owing to 
the absence of a dasher the mixture freezes to the sides of 
the pail quickly and must be scraped down frequently to 
insure a more even consistency to the frozen mixture. 

General Directions for Freezing. — Adjustment. — Scald 
the can, cover, and dasher of the freezer thoroughly and 
then chill. Set the can in the tub part of the freezer and 
adjust the dasher. Pour the mixture into the can, filling it 
not over three-fourths full, as a mixture expands in freez- 
ing. Cover the can and adjust the crank. Be sure that 
the can revolves with the crank. 



288 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Packing. — Fill the space around the can with alternate 
layers of ice and rock salt until the ice comes up nearly to 
the top of the can. Turn the crank occasionally to make 
sure the can turns and to pack the ice and salt closely. 

Freezing. — Turn the crank of the freezer steadily and 
slowly, so as to expose as much surface to the cold as possi- 
ble. If the ice melts rapidly, add more ice and salt to 
keep the bucket well filled above the height of the frozen 
mixture. The icy brine aids in the freezing and may be 
left in the freezer, unless it comes up so high that there is 
danger of its getting into the can. When the freezer turns 
very hard the mixture is sufficiently frozen. 

Packing after Freezing. — After the mixture is frozen, 
draw off the water through a little hole in the side of the 
bucket. Wipe off the cover of the can to avoid getting 
any salt inside, and carefully and quickly remove the dasher. 
Scrape the cream down from the sides of the can and pack 
down well with a spoon. Put the cover on the can and fit a 
cork into the hole on top. Pack ice and salt around the 
can and on the top and throw a heavy piece of carpet or a 
blanket over it all to keep in the cold and exclude the heat. 
Frozen mixtures improve by standing at least an hour. 

Use of Frozen Dishes. — Frozen dishes are for the most 
part highly nutritious, cooling, refreshing, and attractive 
desserts that may be used for luncheons, dinners and after- 
noon or evening entertainments any time of the year. They 
are especially suitable during hot weather, and are of in- 
estimable value for invalids. Ices and sherbets are quite 
often served during a dinner with the heavy meat course. 

APPLICATION 

1. Lemon Ice 

4 c. water 2 c. sugar % c. lemon juice 

Method. — Boil sugar and water to a sirup (about 20 

minutes), add lemon juice, cool, strain, and freeze. 



ICES 289 

2. Orange Ice 
4 c. water J4 c. lemon juice 

2 c. sugar Grated rind of 2 oranges 

2 c. orange juice 

Method. — Same as Lemon Ice; add fruit juice to sirup, 
cool, strain, and freeze. 

3. Orange Milk Sherbet 
4 oranges V/i c. sugar 

4 lemons 4 pts. milk 

Method. — Beat orange and lemon juice and sugar to- 
gether until sugar is dissolved. Add the milk quickly and 
freeze at once. 

{Basis for class, full rule.) 

4. Three-of-a-Kind Sherbet 

3 oranges 3 c. sugar 

3 lemons 3 c. water 

3 bananas 3 egg whites 

Method. — Prepare juice from oranges and lemons, mash 
bananas, put all through a strainer, add the water and 
sugar, and stir constantly until dissolved. Put into freezer 
and freeze until the consistency of mush, then open the 
top carefully and quickly and stir in the egg whites beaten 
stiff. Repack and finish freezing. 

(Basis for class, full rule.) 

5. Sherbets (with gelatin) 

1 tbsp. gelatin 3^ c. boiling water 

3^ c. cold water 1 c. sugar 

Fruit juice 1 c. cold water 

The fruit juice for this recipe may be any of the follow- 
ing:— 

Juice 6 oranges 1 pt. fresh pineapple 

Juice 6 lemons 1 pt. raspberry or strawberry 

Method. — Soak the gelatin in 3^ cup cold water 20 min- 
utes. Add the boiling water, stirring until dissolved. Add 
the sugar and the rest of the cold water, together with the 
fruit juice to be used. Freeze as any other ice. 

—19 



LESSON 25 



FROZEN MIXTURES— ICE CREAMS 

Ice creams are mixtures of cream, sugar, and flavoring, 
and frozen to a firm consistency in a freezer. Being com- 
posed mainly of cream, they are richer in nutrients than 
the ices. Ice creams are used extensively for desserts. 

Classes. — Many variations of ice cream may be made 

from the same founda- 
tion, by simply varying 
the flavoring and by the 
addition of fruits or nuts. 
The foundations of all ice 
creams, however, are of 
two classes, as follows: — 

1. Those made with 
all cream, sweetened and 
flavored. 

2. Those made with 
a custard (milk, eggs) 
and cream, sweetened and 
flavored. 

Ice creams made with 
custards are not as ex- 
pensive or as rich in food 

value as those made of all cream, and are commonly 

spoken of as "plain ice cream." 

Fruit ice cream is made by adding crushed and sweetened 
fruit to the foundation rule for ice cream. The amount of 
sugar to be used depends upon the acidity of the fruit. 

(290) 




Fig. 41. Ice cream. 



ICE CREAMS 291 

• 

Fruits best adapted to ice creams are pineapple, peach, 
apricot, strawberry, raspberry, cranberry, cherry, currant, 
and all candied fruits. 

Nut ice creams are made by adding chopped nuts to an 
ice cream rule, and any of the following nuts may be used : 
walnuts, pecans, almonds, filberts, chestnuts, peanuts, and 
pistachio. 

Frozen puddings are made with any ice cream rule by 
adding plenty of fruit, nuts, preserved or candied fruits, or 
macaroons, etc., together with flavoring, such as maras- 
chino, and freezing the mixture the same as ice cream. 

Frozen puddings are sometimes packed in ice and salt 
for several hours, and are frozen without stirring. 

Frozen Mixtures Not Stirred. — Some mixtures frozen 
without stirring are: — 

Mousse is made of the whip of heavy cream, sweetened, 
flavored, and packed in a mold in ice and salt (1 part salt, 
2 parts ice) for 3 or 4 hours. 

Parfait is made of cream, sugar, egg yolks, flavoring, 
w/ith or without the addition of fruit or nuts. The mixture 
is packed in a mold and set in ice and salt for 2 or 3 hours. 
Owing to the presence of egg yolks, it does not require as 
long a time for freezing as mousse. 

Cream. — The quality of cream depends to some extent 
upon the animal from which it is derived and the manner 
of feeding, but largely upon the care given the milk and 
cream. The fat globules in the milk rise to the top when 
the milk stands several hours, or they are separated out by 
putting the fresh milk through a separator. Separator 
cream may be kept longer, since it is taken from fresh milk, 
while cream formed by allowing the milk to stand is usually 
from 12 to 24 hours old. 



292 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Cream may be separated thick or thin, and for com- 
mercial purposes is designated as "thin" and "double" 
cream, according to its thickness. Thin cream, containing 
from 18 to 25 per cent fat, may be used for ice cream, with 
or without a custard foundation. Double cream, usually 
containing about 40 per cent fat, is very thick, and is best 
for whipping. This sells for 60 cents a quart, and if used 
for ice cream must be greatly reduced by milk or the action 
of the freezer is likely to produce butter. Condensed milk 
is sometimes used for ice cream, but it must be reduced with 
water. 

Custards are mixtures of milk, sugar, flavoring, and 
eggs. Flour or cornstarch may be substituted as thicken- 
ing in place of eggs, but requires thorough cooking and does 
not make as rich a custard. An ice cream with a custard 
foundation does not require as much cream as one without 
custard. Custards or any mixture that is frozen requires 
about twice as much sugar to sweeten as those not frozen. 

To make fancy shapes or bricks of ice cream, put the 
molds where they will get ice cold; then put in the ice cream 
by spoonfuls. Pack the mixture in solidly and fill the 
molds so full that when the cover is put on every part of 
the mold is filled. Two or more kinds of ice cream may be 
combined in one mold by packing them in layers. This 
makes what is called Neapolitan ice cream. A water ice 
may also be combined with ice cream in the same way. 
Cover the mold with oiled paper or wrap with cloth. Pack 
in salt and ice, using 1 part of salt to 4 parts of ice, and let 
stand an hour or two. 

To remove ice cream from the mold, remove the mold 
from the packing, take off the cover, and let stand a minute 
or two. Run a knife around the inside of the mold, if it is 
regular in shape, invert over a serving dish or platter, and 



ICE CREAMS 293 

the cream will slip out. If it does not come out easily, 
dip the mold into warm water and out at once, or wipe it 
with a cloth wrung out of hot water. 

APPLICATION 

1. Vanilla Ice Cream (custard foundation^ 
2 c. scalded milk 1 egg 

1 tsp. flour y % tsp. salt 

1 c. sugar 1 qt. thin cream 

2 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Mix flour, sugar, and salt, add the egg slightly 
beaten, and then the scalded milk gradually. Cook over 
hot water in a double boiler for 15 to 20 minutes, stirring 
constantly at first. Remove from the fire, cool, add the 
cream and flavoring, strain, and freeze. If custard has a 
curdled appearance it will disappear in the freezing. Serve 
with Chocolate Sauce. (See Lesson 21, page 279.) 

{Basis for class, whole rule.) 

2. Vanilla Ice Cream 
1 qt. thin cream 1 pinch of salt 

1 c. sugar 1 y 2 tsp. vanilla 

Method. — Add the sugar, salt, and vanilla to the cream, 
and freeze. 

3. Chocolate Ice Cream 

Vanilla Ice Cream rule plus 
4 ©z. bitter chocolate 1 c. water 

Method. — Boil chocolate and water 5 minutes, and add 
to vanilla ice cream just before freezing. 

4. Caramel Ice Cream 

Method. — Same as Vanilla Ice Cream, adding 1J^ cup- 
fuls of caramelized sugar. Then freeze. 

To caramelize sugar, melt sugar in an omelet pan slowly, 
stirring constantly until melted and heated to a rich brown 
color. Then add slowly to hot custard. 



294 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

6. Strawberry Ice Cream 

3 pts. thin cream 2 c. sugar 

2 boxes berries Pinch of salt 

Method. — Wash and hull the berries, cover with sugar, 
and let stand 2 hours. Mash, and press through a fine 
strainer, add the salt and cream, and freeze. Red rasp- 
berries may be substituted for strawberries. 

6. Peppermint Cream 

9 sticks red and white peppermint candy 
1 quart thin cream. 

Method. — Heat the cream in a double boiler, put candy 
in, and let dissolve. This takes some time; when thorough- 
ly dissolved, freeze. The candy colors, sweetens, and 
flavors the cream. 



LESSON 26 

FROZEN DESSERTS (Continued) 

To Whip Cream.— Thoroughly chill the cream before 
whipping. Put cream into a deep bowl and set bowl in a 
pan of cracked ice. Add a little water to the ice— it chills 
the cream more thoroughly. Dilute heavy, double cream 
about one- third its bulk with milk; undiluted heavy cream 
will turn to butter if beaten a minute too long. 

Use a Dover beater or egg whisk to beat with. Cover 
the top of the bowl with a paper to keep cream from spatter- 
ing, making a hole in the center for the beater and weighting 
the corners of the paper under the bowl. A cream whip or 
churn is suitable for beating thin cream, and is also used in a 
bowl set in cracked ice. 

The first whip of cream which appears on the top is 
filled with large air bubbles, which break easily. This is 
not good to use. Stir it into the cream and continue beat- 
ing. When the cream beats up thick, remove the top whip 
by spoonfuls as fast as it forms and put into a strainer over 
a bowl. The thin cream drains off and may be put back into 
the bowl to be whipped. The thick whip is ready for use. 
Continue until all the cream possible is thick. Cream about 
trebles its bulk in whipping. 

A charlotte is a combination of cream and gelatin. 

APPLICATION 

1. Charlotte Russe 
1 tbsp. granulated gelatin y z c. powdered sugar 
M c. cold water $y 2 c . thin cream whip 

y$ c. scalded cream 1 y 2 tsp. vanilla 

6 or 8 lady fingers 

Method— Soak gelatin in cold water, add scalded cream, 

(295) 



296 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

stir until it dissolves, strain into a bowl, add the sugar and 
flavoring. Set the bowl in ice water, stir constantly until 
it begins to thicken; then fold in whip from cream, adding 
about one-third at a time. Line a mold with lady fingers, 
placing on end side by side Y2 inch apart with the crust side 
out. Pack the mold with the mixture, and chill. May 
be made in individual molds. 
(Basis for 2, }/% rule.) 

2. Pineapple or Strawberry Charlottes 

Method. — Pineapple and strawberry charlottes are made 
by adding 1 cup pineapple pulp and juice and grated rind of 
half a lemon, or 2 cups mashed strawberries and more sugar. 

3. Bavarian Cream 

1 pt. cream (whipped) 1 tsp. vanilla 

1 pt. of thin cream or milk Pinch of salt 

l /2 c. sugar 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin 

Yolks of 4 eggs Y2 c. water 

Method. — Whip the pint of cream and set aside to drain. 
Scald the thin cream or milk, add slowly to beaten egg yolks, 
add the sugar and salt. Return to fire a moment to set egg, 
remove as soon as it begins to thicken, add the soaked gela- 
tin and flavoring. Stir until the gelatin has dissolved and 
then pour through a sieve. When cold fold in the whip of 
the cream, turn into a wet mold, and chill. 

Pineapple or strawberries may be used to vary the flavor 
and to garnish. Line the mold with large fresh strawber- 
ries cut in halves, or use the grated pineapple and juice in 
place of the thin cream. 

4. Neapolitan Mousse 

1 qt. cream 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin 

}/2 c. maraschino sirup 4 tbsp. milk 

^ c. candied fruit, cut fine 1 sc. c. powdered sugar 

Method. — Whip the cream, drain in a strainer. Use 
only whip. Soften the gelatin in the milk, dissolve by set- 



GOLD DESSERTS 297 

ting bowl in boiling water, strain into a bowl, add powdered 
sugar and flavoring. Fold in the whip from the cream care- 
fully, and the candied fruit, cut fine and softened in the 
maraschino sirup. Pack closely in a wet mold, cover tight, 
bind with buttered cloth. Pack in ice 3 or 4 hours. 

5. Maple Parfait 

4 eggs 1 pt. cream 

1 c. map.e syrup Pinch of salt 

Metliod. — Cook egg yolks and syrup together and add 
salt. Cool the mixture. Beat the cream and add to the 
egg mixture. Add the stiffly beaten egg whites and pack 
in salt and ice for three hours. 

6. Bavarian Cream (without custard foundation^ 

% c. fruit juice 1 tsp. gelatine 

y% c. lemon juice 1 tbsp. cold water 

Y z c. sugar 2 eggs 

Method. — Mix the fruit juice, lemon juice, and sugar 
with the egg yolks. Put in a saucepan and cook over a 
slow fire, stirring constantly until the mixture thickens. 
Remove from fire, add the soaked gelatine, and pour the 
mixture over the whites of eggs beaten stiff. Set in a pan of 
ice and beat until the mixture holds its shape. Turn into 
one large mold and chill. Any fruit juice may be used. 



LESSON 27 

TABLE SERVICE AND ETIQUETTE 

The dining room should be a pleasant room located 
near the kitchen, with a butler's or china pantry adjoining. 
The butler's pantry is used for serving and for the prepara- 
tion of salads, bread and butter, cakes, etc. 

The decorations in the dining room should be pleasing, 
harmonious, and quiet in tone, as well as simple, and the 
pictures suitable. The light must be good, yet not too 
strong, and the temperature about 70° F. 

The furniture of the dining room includes a china 
closet, chairs, table, buffets or sideboards, and a serving table. 
The buffet or sideboard contains the silver and linen, 
and should always be covered with a white linen cover. 

The serving table is also covered, and is used for dishes 
containing food. 

The table may be round, oblong, or square, according to 
the shape of the room and the size of the family. It occu- 
pies the center of the room. The place for the hostess is 
opposite the pantry door, through which the waitress enters. 
In this way the hostess can direct the movements of the 
waitress in case of emergency without attracting the 
attention of the guests. 

The chairs are arranged around the table with the front 
edge of the .seat just touching the cloth. Place only one 
chair at each end of the table, for host and hostess, opposite 
each other, and space the chairs evenly for the guests. 

Table Appointments. — The table is nearly always cov- 
ered with a tablecloth, but doilies are pretty used on a well- 
polished table in place of a cloth. 

(298) 



TABLE SERVICE 299 

A pad or service cloth must be used under a tablecloth 
next to the table. It deadens the sound and gives the 
linen a firmer and better appearance, as well as keeps the 
table from becoming marred. Asbestos pads can be pur- 
chased to fit the top of the table, or use heavy table felt or 
Canton flannel. 

Linens must be absolutely spotless, carefully laundered, 
and plainly folded. Use pure linen or damask cloths and 
napkins of as good quality as can be afforded. A coarse 
linen is better than a mixture of cotton and linen. The 
best time to buy linens is in January, for the latest patterns 
and summer bleached linen are imported in December and 
there is a better selection at that time. Good standard 
patterns are the best to buy, but most patterns can be du- 
plicated within two years. The Shamrock, Irish linen, 
denotes the best qualities obtainable. These are hand 
woven, and the strict British laws compel the manufactur- 
ers to state if hand woven on the margin of all linen, and to 
produce the same measurements for their goods. As a 
result Irish linens are dependable. Avoid linen that is stiff 
and that crackles when bent, as it has been starched to give 
it a better appearance. 

Good damask has an elastic texture. German linens 
are very desirable and come in good patterns, but are not 
as pure white as the Irish linens. Table cloths that come 
in patterns are more satisfactory than those that come by 
the yard, and there is but a slight difference in the prices 
of the two. 

Napkins to match should be bought with each table- 
cloth. Avoid extreme sizes. The standard sizes for 
dinner napkins run from 22 to 27 inches. 

To Launder Table Linen. — Heavy damask requires no 
stiffening, and must be ironed while wet. Thin tablecloths 



300 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

remain fresh longer if slightly stiffened with a very thin 
starch and ironed quite wet. 

Avoid many folds in ironing a tablecloth; make one 
lengthwise through the center and roll the cloth on a roller, 
or fold carefully without creasing. 

Napkins are folded perfectly true at the corners and 
are ironed quite damp. Fold over half way, then over 
again the same way, then fold end to end, and again to 
form a square, leaving the corners of the napkin folded 
out. 

To spread the tablecloth, put the single crease of the 
cloth directly in the center of the table, lengthwise, with 
the fold straight with the table. Crease the cloth slightly 
around the edge of the table that it may drape smoothly. 
The cloth should be wide enough to hang over the edges 
of the table a quarter of a yard. 

A centerpiece of white linen either embroidered or 
trimmed with lace, is used in the center of the table. 

A table reflector, or mirror, may be used as a basis for 
table decoration. On this place a basket or vase contain- 
ing flowers or ferns. If flowers or ferns are not accessible, 
a candelabra or a plant may be used. Avoid too high a 
basket or vase of flowers. Select flowers free from heavy 
odors, and those that harmonize with the coloring of the 
dining room. 

Dishes and Silver. — Use the best china that can be 
afforded. White china or china having a delicate design 
is the best. Never use two kinds for the same course, but 
different patterns may be used lor different courses. Select 
good styles, and if only a limited number of dishes can 
be had, buy from open stock and get dishes that 
may be used for the greatest number of purposes. Knives 
and forks should be of medium size and of a simple pattern 



TABLE SERVICE 



301 



that cleans easily. Plain silver is harder to take care of 
than that having a simple pattern. 

Setting the Table. — A "cover" marks the individual 
place and includes all the silver for one person. From 20 
to 25 inches of length and 15 or 16 inches of depth are 
allowed for each cover. Plates, silver, and napkins are 
placed one inch from the edge of the table in the order of 
service, the silver for the first course being farthest from 




Fig. 42. The proper arrangement for a cover. 



the plate. A service plate marks the center of each cover, 
and is placed on the table at the beginning of a meal. 
Place the knives to the right of the service plate with the 
cutting edge turned towards the plate; then place the 
spoons beside them, in the order of service. The number 
of pieces depends upon the meal to be served. Place the 
forks to the left of the service plate, tines up, and the napkin 



302 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

to the left of the forks, with the corners of the napkin towards 
the edge of the plate and the lower edge in a straight line 
with the row of silver and plate. 

The bread and butter plates are placed at the left, at 
the top of the forks. Put the butter spreaders on the 
plates with the handle convenient to the right hand. The 
tumbler for water place at the right-hand side, at the end 
of the knives, and the individual salts at the top of the 
cover in the center. 

The uniform of a waitress includes a neat, simple wash 
dress, either black or white, and a plain white apron. A 
small cap may or may not be worn. A waitress must be 
neat, quick, careful, quiet, clean, and observing in her work. 

The duties of a waitress include the care of the dining 
room and room from which the food is served, also the care 
of the silver, cut glass, fine china, and linens. She must 
prepare the salads, butter balls, beverages, and cut the 
bread. She must keep hot things hot and cold things cold. 

Styles of Serving. — There are two ways of serving 
meals: (1) a la russe or Russian style, where only flowers and 
perhaps dessert are placed on the table at the beginning 
of the meal. The several courses are served from the side, 
each person helping himself when the dishes are passed ; or 
the plates are served in the kitchen and placed before each 
guest. This style is best adapted to serving large numbers. 

(2) The English style of serving is used at small dinner 
parties and in the home. The host carves and serves 
the meat and vegetables and the hostess serves the soup, 
salad, dessert, and coffee. Only one course appears on 
the table at a time. Bread, butter, pickles, and relishes 
are placed on the tables and passed by the waitress. The 
waitress also passes the plates and dishes served by the 
host and hostess. 



TABLE SERVICE 



303 



Service without a Maid.— The average home can not 
afford a maid and many homemakers that can afford one 
prefer to do their own work. It is quite necessary that 
every girl should learn to do for herself and be able to 
assume the duties of cook, hostess and maid, easily and 
gracefully, whenever she chooses to do so. 

Entertaining without a maid is more informal and nec- 
essarily more simple than when a maid is employed, but 
the charm of any home dinner lies in its being properly 
planned and served. 

Successful entertaining in the home depends largely 
upon the hostess. She should be natural and appear at 
ease. When her work is well planned, so that she has no 
anxiety as to the outcome, she can be at ease. She should 
attempt only simple things at first until she gains con- 
fidence. Then practice will help her. 

Rules for serving remain the same for all meals and 
at both the formal and informal occasions. Where there 
is no maid to attend to the wants of the guests at the 
table, much of the table service is performed at the 
table by the host and hostess and may be done very suc- 
cessfully and with added hospitality. 
Rules for Serving without a Maid.— 

lo Warm all dishes used for hot foods,' and chill all 
dishes used for cold foods. 

2. Fill water tumblers % full, just before guests sit 
down. Keep the glasses filled. 

3. Place butter on butter plates just before guests are 
seated, replenishing when necessary. 

4. Use a round tray covered with a doily for serving 
and removing dishes. 

5. Cut the bread just before serving, so that it will 
not dry out. Hot breads should be covered with a clean 



304 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

folded napkin or linen square to keep them hot. 

6. Be sure that all the silver is in place at each cover 
and at the host's and hostess' places for serving. 

7. Have all dishes for each course ready for serving. 

8. The hostess should put on a small white serving 
apron before announcing the meal if she must serve. 

9. The hostess assigns each guest to his or her chair 
at table. Guests should take their places quietly. 

10. Keep all hot dishes hot by keeping them in the 
oven with heat reduced 

11. Leave nothing cooking which requires the atten- 
tion of the hostess to make her uneasy. 

12. Creamer and sugar with cups and saucers should 
be arranged on a large tray on the side table ready for the 
coffee pot. The tray should be set before the hostess at 
the time to serve the coffee. 

13. Some other member of the family may have such 
duties as filling water glasses and serving vegetables. 

14. Remove dishes containing food, one at a time 
first, in each course, then the soiled plates and silver of 
each cover in turn. 

15. Remove everything pertaining to one course be- 
fore serving the next. 

16. Use a folded napkin and small tray to crumb the 
table with, if crumbing is desired. 

17. Fill finger bowls Yz full of warm water. These 
should be ready on the serving table before announcing 
the meal 

18. Make the conversation cheerful and interesting 
at table and one in which all may join. 

19. The host and hostess sit at opposite ends of the 
table. The honor guest, if a woman, sits at the right 
of the host; if a man, at the right of the hostess. 



TABLE SERVICE 305 

Serving Breakfast without a Maid. — Before breakfast 
is announced the fruit and cereal courses should be on 
the table. Fruit may be in one large dish or basket, 
ready to be passed, or on small plates on the service plate 
at each cover. The tureen with cereal with individual 
dishes for serving should be at the hostess' place. Where 
fruit is handled with the fingers, a finger bowl is necessary. 
Individual ones may be set at the top of each cover before 
breakfast is announced, if fruit is on the plates, or on the 
plates and removed by each guest to the top of cover 
when fruit is passed and ready for the plate. 

• When the fruit course is finished, the cereal dish may 
be set on the service plate and the small fruit plate set 
above the cover to simplify the service. If preferred, 
the fruit plates may be passed to the hostess, who puts 
them on the serving cart or side table by her. 

When the cereal is finished, dishes from both courses 
are removed to the kitchen. Bring in dishes of food to 
be served first and place at the top and side of the host's 
place. Then plates, in a pile, should be set in front of the 
host. The coffee service on the tray is moved to the host- 
ess' place, the bread is brought in, and glasses refilled. 

The host serves the plates, which are passed down the 
side of the table — never across. The hostess receives hers 
first, the guests next in turn. 

Coffee cups are passed in the same manner. The host- 
ess may use the cream and sugar for each one, if she knows 
their particular wants. 

Serving the Dinner without a Maid. — Dinner without 
help must be simple and more informal than when help 
is available. Three courses are usually as much as can 
be managed successfully and are sufficient for the average 
dinner. These consist of soup, meat course, and dessert. 



306 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

If a fourth course is desired for special occasions, either 
a fruit or fish cocktail may be served preceding the soup 
course; or a salad course may be served after the meat 
course. When a salad is served with the three-course 
dinner, it is a simple one served with the meat course. 

Before dinner is announced the first course should be 
Tn the table at each cover. Soup is served in individual 
dishes set on the service plate and should be very hot 
when served so that it will not be too cool. Wafers may 
be served on the side of each soup dish or placed on one 
plate to be passed. Celery, olives, radishes and any ac- 
companiment to the course must also be on the table. 

The service plate is a large plate at each cover upon 
which the cocktail or soup dishes stand. It remains on 
the table until the meat course is served, being removed 
before the dinner plate is placed. For the home dinner 
it may be removed at the same time the soup plate is 
removed. 

The meat platter is brought in first, followed by the 
vegetable dishes for the main course. The meat is set direct- 
ly in front of the host at the top of the cover within easy 
reach. The plates, in a pile, are set in front of him. 

The platter for the meat must always be large enough 
to make serving easy. For a large fowl an extra platter 
or plate may be of assistance in serving. Dressings and 
carved portions may be laid on it to make more room. 

If a vegetable is served in small dishes, the hostess 
or some member of the family may serve it. The vegetable 
dish and small dishes are placed before the one whose duty 
it is to serve them. 

If the salad is served with the meat course, the most 
attractive way is for the hostess to serve and dress each 



TABLE SERVICE 307 

plate. A large bowl with all the salad materials prettily 
arranged in separate groups, ready to be assembled on 
each salad plate, is placed before the hostess, together 
with the salad plates and dressing materials. The art of 
arranging the salad at table is soon mastered and adds a 
bit of charm to the home dinner which any hostess will 
welcome. The dressing may be served from an attractive 
bowl or a French dressing may be prepared at the table 
by the hostess. French dressing bottles are convenient 
and attractive. 

Water glasses should be refilled between courses. 

A second helping may be offered guests at the informal 
home dinner — never at a formal dinner. Do not insist 
on guests' taking a second helping, if they decline the first 
invitation. 

When the course is finished by everyone the hostess 
rises and removes the dishes according to rules 14 and 15. 
Soiled dishes left in the dining room detract from the 
dessert course. It is always best to remove all dishes of 
preceding courses from the dining room before serving 
the dessert. Piling on a side table is not a time saver. 
One moving of dishes is best. 

Crumbing is seldom necessary at informal dinners. 

Desserts are best served at table by the hostess. The 
large bowl or plate with the dessert and individual dishes 
are set at the hostess' place — at the right side. The 
coffee tray service is set in front at the top. 

The hostess then pours the coffee or tea, as the case 
may be, and the cream and sugar may be added by her or 
passed. The dessert is then served. 

Finger bowls are seldom used for the informal dinner. 

Serving the Luncheon or Supper without a Maid. — 
Luncheon or supper depends upon the time of day it is 



SOS DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

served. If at noon, it is a luncheon; if at evening, a sup- 
per. It consists mainly of two courses, a hot dish with 
bread, beverage, and a simple dessert. If a hearty meal 
is desired, a cream soup or additional hot dish may be 
added. 

The table setting is more simple than for dinner. A 
small cloth or doilies take the place of the dinner cloth. 

The hostess serves, if the host is absent. 

The hot dish usually consists of a left-over, casserole 
dish of two or more materials. Many attractive combi- 
nations may be developed. The service may be as dainty 
and attractive as the hostess desires. 

Serve omelets or creamed dishes over toast on an at- 
tractive platter or chop plate. 

Serve two hot foods on serving platter, one in the center, 
the other as a border, to economize dishes and lend at- 
tractiveness, as omelet with white sauce border, or border 
of peas, bean loaf with tomato sauce. Serve salads at 
table from attractive salad bowls and arrange individual 
plates attractively. 

Serve the hot beverage with the main course. Some 
member of the family may pour it, if the hostess is busy 
serving the plates. 

Have all dishes, food to be served, with beverage tray 
service on table when meal is announced. 

Remove dishes of this course before serving dessert 
course. Desserts are always served at table for informal 
luncheons or suppers. 

If a more elaborate meal is desired, a fruit cup or cream 
soup preceding the main course makes a pleasant addi- 
tion. This is served in the same manner as at dinner. 

Service with a Maid. — All rules for serving are prac- 
tically the same, the main difference being that the host- 



TABLE SERVICE 309 

ess does not leave her place at table during a meal — and 
the waitress attends to the service of dishes in and out of 
the dining room and passing dishes to the guests in place 
of having dishes passed along at table. 

The maid remains in the dining room while the guests 
are seated, and until each course is served completely. 
Dishes which admit of choice as rolls, jelly and olives, 
are passed by the waitress to the left of each guest in turn. 
The dish is held low and near the guest. Dishes to be 
placed on the table, as vegetables, coffee cup, are placed 
at the right of each guest. 

Dishes are removed from the right, unless doing so 
necessitates reaching in front of a guest. 

The hostess is always served first, the honor guest next. 

A folded napkin or small tray is used under all dishes 
carried by the waitress. 

Fruit courses should be on table as in service without 
a maid, when the meal is announced. 

In the main course the waitress stands at the left side 
of the host when he is serving the plates. As one plate 
is served the waitress takes it and passes to the right of the 
hostess. She removes the service plates with the left hand 
and places the dinner plate with her right. The waitress 
then returns to the left of the host in time to receive the 
next plate served. 

The order of serving guests is always the same, hostess, 
honor guest, and so on. 

Bread and rolls are passed by waitress. 

Salads may be served as a separate course from the 
pantry. If served at table the waitress places the plates 
for hostess at each cover. Desserts may be served at 
table or from the pantry, but the coffee is best served at 
table. 



310 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The formal dinner with a waitress consists of many 
courses, and is served between the hours of 6 and 8 P. M. 
The courses consist of (1) Fruit or oyster cocktail, (2) 
Clear stock soups and relishes, (3) Fish fillet, (4) Entree, 

(5) Meat course with one or two vegetables and an ice, 

(6) Salad, wafers, (7) Dessert — sherbet, mousse, cake, 
(8) Coffee, cheese, nuts or bonbons. Coffee is served 
clear at the last in small after-dinner cups. 

If the Russian style of serving prevails, most dishes 
are served from the pantry and placed in front of each guest 
by the waitress. The meat course may also be served 
from the pantry, if many guests are present. 

Formal luncheons are also served from the pantry by 
the waitress. 

Table Etiquette and Hostess Courtesies. — 

Invitations to dinner or luncheon should be made 
several days prior to the day of the engagement. An 
invitation should be accepted or declined as soon after the 
invitation as possible so that the hostess will know definitely 
and may plan accordingly. 

If an invitation is accepted, only cases of illness or 
very urgent business should prevent keeping the engage- 
ment. Guests should be prompt in arriving about five 
to ten minutes before the hour named. To be late for a 
dinner or luncheon is a very grave offense for which there 
is seldom an excuse. 

Courtesy. It shows culture to speak deliberately and 
quietly and avoid monopolizing the conversation. Try 
to be interested in the conversation of others. 

After the dinner or luncheon is over guests should not 
be too hasty with their departure. To leave too abruptly 
is discourteous to the hostess. Remain at least half an 
hour, if necessity demands an early departure. 



TABLE SERVICE 311 

In taking leave of your host and hostess express your 
pleasure and appreciation of their invitation in a simple 
but sincere manner. Make all dinner calls within two 
weeks after the dinner engagement. 

At the Table. — When invited into the dining room 
take your place at the back of the chair indicated by the 
hostess until she gives the sign to be seated. The gentle- 
men should assist in placing the chairs for the ladies at 
their right hand. The chairs, if properly placed, need 
not be pulled out before sitting down. Always sit down, 
and rise at the left side of your chair. 

If uncertain what to do at any time during the meal, 
observe the hostess and do as she does. 

In opening the napkin, do not lift it above the table, 
simply draw it off carefully and unfold half way and draw 
across the lap. If a bread stick or roll is folded in the nap- 
kin, place it on the service plate, in case there is no bread 
and butter plate. When the meal is ended simply lay 
the napkin up at the side of the plate, after the hostess 
disposes of hers. If a guest for more than one meal, fold 
the napkin neatly. 

Sit erect at the table without leaning against the table, 
and keep the arms off the table. 

Use of Silver. — Do not handle or play with the 
silver during the meal, or gesticulate with the knife or 
fork in speaking. 

The silver is placed in order of serving with that to be 
used first at the outer edge of the cover. Remove and 
use them in this order. 

In cutting, grasp the handles of the knife and fork 
firmly with the palm of the hands over each handle. 

The knife is used only to cut with and to spread the 
bread. A small knife is often used for spreading butter. 



312 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The jor\ is used to hold food in place while cutting 
with the knife, to carry food to the mouth, and to cut any 
soft food which does not require a knife. 

The spoon is used to convey soft food to the mouth; 
to stir the sugar into a beverage and to test the flavor 
and temperature. After testing, it should be removed 
from the cup and placed at the side on the saucer. Never 
let it remain in the cup. Also drink a beverage from the 
cup. 

Usages. — To use the soup" spoon, dip it away from you 
in filling the bowl and take all food from the side of 
the spoon, never from the tip. 

Never put crackers or bread into the soup. 

Avoid talking when any food is in the mouth. Keep 
lips closed while masticating food. 

Eat quietly and chew all food thoroughly. 

Do not raise food on the fork or spoon while talking. 

Never scrape dishes or tip soup or dessert dishes to 
remove the last of the food. 

Celery, wafers, olives, radishes and salted nuts are 
eaten from the fingers. 

yln eating green corn from the cob, break the cob 
into short lengths and convey to the mouth with one 
hand only. 

Oranges and grape fruit are nearly always prepared 
in the kitchen to make serving easy. Large fruits, as 
apples, peaches and pears may be pared and cut in sections 
at the table and small fruits, as cherries, plums, grapes 
and berries on stems are conveyed to the mouth with the 
fingers. 

In passing dishes take care not to let the fingers get 
over the edge of the dish. Use the handles when passing 
creamer and sugar bowl. 



TABLE SERVICE 313 

If you do not care for any food served, simply leave it 
on the plate untouched without any comment to draw 
attention to it. 

Be careful about taking too hot food in the mouth. 
Wait until it cools. 

Drink slowly and raise the glass with the right hand. 

^To use the finger bowl, dip the tips of the fingers of 
first one hand then the other lightly in the water and dry 
them on the napkin. 

A second helping of food may be taken at the informal 
dinner if the host offers it but at the formal dinner the 
second helping is not offered. 

In offering to serve any one or pass anything simply 
say, "May I help you?" or "Let me give you." 

The personal appearance of hair, hands and dress must 
always be neat and clean before appearing at table. A 
man should never appear at table in his shirt sleeves. 

True politeness should be the real guide for table 
etiquette and an unselfish thought for others means good 
manners at all times. 

APPLICATION 

1. Demonstrate kinds of linen and methods of fold- 
ing. 

2. Demonstrate placing a cover, setting a table for first 
course for breakfast and first course for dinner. 

3. Practice serving, students taking part of waitress, 
of hostess and of host. 

4. Give examples of table etiquette. 



LESSON 28 

DIETARIES— PLANNING MENUS 

Some Points to Consider in Selecting Food. — In the 

planning of the meals, it is necessary to consider many things 
besides just the dishes that are to be served. The kinds, 
cost, and amount of nutrients contained in each dish must 
be carefully considered, together with the number, sex, 
age, and occupation of the persons for whom the food is 
provided. 

All persons must have protein for the building and 
repair of body tissue, and fuel material for warmth 
and work. Individuals differ in the amounts and propor- 
tions they require, and even among those who are in good 
health there are many who are obliged to avoid certain 
kinds of food. 

For guidance in the selection of food, nature provides 
us with instinct and taste, but we are apt to be influenced 
too much by taste and to overlook instinct and experience. 
We need also to acquire the knowledge of foods that science 
has made possible through the laboratory. When more 
food is eaten than is needed, the digestive organs are over- 
taxed or injured and much energy is wasted which might 
have been used to better account. 

Food Requirements for Different Conditions. — Propor- 
tions vary greatly in the amount of nutrients required by 
persons of various age, sex, and activity. A young child 
needs less food than an older one, a man more than a woman, 
and all require more when at work than when at rest. The 
following table shows the comparative food requirements 

(314) 



PLANNING MENUS 315 

of persons of different ages and occupations as compared 
with the needs of a man in full vigor at moderate work. 

Proportionate Food Requirements for Different 
Conditions 

Man, full vigor, at moderate work inn 

Man, full vigor, at hard work. 



1 90 

Man, full vigor, at sedentary work 

Woman, full vigor, at moderate wc 

Woman, full vigor, at hard labor. . . . 

Woman, full vigor, at sedentary labor. 7n 



80 



Man or woman, old age . . . 

Man or woman, extreme old age ... . " hc\ V^ so 

Boy, 15-16 years old on 

Boy, 13-14 years old ' ™ 

Boy, 12-13 years old '" 5)J 

Boy, 10-11 years old ^ 

Girl, 15-16 years old " " Sx 

Girl, 13-14 years old SX 

Girl, 10-12 years old " vi 

Child, 6- 9 years old Sx 

Child, 2- 5 years old ^0 

Child, under 2 years old 30 

These figures illustrate the fact that there is an increase 
in food consumption from infancy until full vigor and that 
there is a decrease in old age. They also show that the 
amount of muscular work performed greatly affects the 
food requirement. Climate and season are other factors 
to be considered. In winter the energy requirement per 
day is greater by about 800 calories than in summer. 

Heat Value of Food.— A calorie* is the unit of measure 
in determining quantity of heat. It is used in designating 
the fuel value of a food, or the amount of heat that a 
given quantity of the food will produce in -the body. 
1 pound of protein yields 1820 calories. 
1 pound of carbohydrates yields 1820 calories. 
1 pound of fat yields 4084 calories, or 2J4 times as 
many calories as carbohydrates. 

1 calorie 6 heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 4°F. equale 
—20 



316 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



The standard requirement per day has been estimated 

as follows: — 

Man at light work 2450 to 2800 calories 

Man at moderate muscular work 2800 to 3150 calories 

Man at hard muscular work 3150 to 4200 calories 

Man at rest 2100 to 2450 calories 

A woman, .8 as much as a man 

Since protein foods are indispensable in the building 
of muscular tissue, fats and carbohydrates should be sup- 
plied in the right proportion and quantity, so that the 
proteins will not be utilized as fuel. Fats and carbohy- 
drates are more abundant and cheaper foods for fuel, and 
when oxidized leave waste substances that are easily elim- 
inated from the body. Protein consumed for energy 
leaves a nitrogenous waste which necessitates additional 
work on the part of the excretory organs. 

The approximate energy requirement of an average 
size man: 

When sleeping, is .4 calorie per pound per hour. 
When sitting, .6 calorie per pound per hour. 
At moderate exercise 1.0 calorie per pound per hour. 
At active exercise 2.0 calories per pound per hour. 
At severe exercise 3.0 per pound per hour. 



The Approximate Energy Requirement of a Child During Growth. 



Age 


Calories per pound 
per day 


Total calories per day 


First year 


45 
45-40 
40-36 
36-30 
30-27 
27-20 


i 

900 


1-2 years 


1200- 900 


3-5 years 


1500-1200 


*6-9 years 


2000-1400 


10-13 years 


2200-1800 


14-17 years 


3000-2200 







PLANNING MENUS 317 

A diet, moderate in the amount of protein but consisting 
of plenty of fuel foods, is much the best for growth. Ten 
to fifteen calories in every hundred is sufficient to be de- 
rived from protein. A family requiring 12,000 calories per 
day should have 1,200 as the protein calories. The kind of 
protein food to be selected is also of great importance. 
The protein material should be varied in order to secure 
the different kinds needed for maintenance, growth and 
activity. Less meat should be used and the protein sup- 
plied by such foods as eggs, cheese, legumes, and whole 
wheat breads and cereals. Milk, being rich in calcium, is 
very essential to the growing child and should be used freely 
in the diet. 

The nutritive ratio of foods is the proper ratio in which 
digestible protein should be taken in relation to the diges- 
tible fats and carbohydrates, so as to secure a diet which 
will produce the greatest efficiency at the least cost and 
waste. The nutritive ratio has been estimated by Atwater 
to be 1:63^, or 1 part protein to 6J^ parts carbohydrates. 
The best proportion of fat to carbohydrates is 1:2J^; that 
is, 2J^ times as much carbohydrates as fat. 

Ash Constituents. In addition to the consideration of 
the number of calories supplied the body by the proteins, 
carbohydrates and fats, the ash requirement is important 
in planning the dietary. 

The ash which exists in the body consists mainly of 
phosphorus, iron, calcium, potassium, sodium, sulphur, 
magnesium and chlorine. All these mineral substances are 
necessary for the proper growth of the body, although no 
definite proportion of ash in the diet is required; but ash 
supplying foods must be freely used. 

The following list of foods rich in ash material is given 
as an aid in menu planning. 



318 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



PRINCIPAL ASH CONSTITUENTS OF FOODS 
In the approximate order of their proportions 



Iron 


Calcium 


Phosphorus 


Fruits 


Fruits 


Fruits 


Strawberries 


Strawberries 


Raspberries 


Grapes 


Lemons 


Strawberries 


Lemons 


Oranges 


Grapes 


Dates 


Raspberries 


Peaches 


Raisins 


Figs 


Figs 


Figs 




Currants 


Prunes 




Cherries 


Vegetables 


Vegetables 


Vegetables 


Spinach 


Cauliflower 


Spinach 


Lettuce 


Celery 


Celery 


Asparagus 


Spinach 


Lettuce 


Beans — string 


Lettuce 


Cauliflower 


Cabbage 


Rhubarb 


Cucumbers 


Celery 


Turnips 


Asparagus 


Radishes 


Cabbage 


Rhubarb 


Peas 


Beans — string 


Radishes 


Carrots 


Asparagus 


Turnips 


Potatoes 


Radishes 


Parsnips 


Nuts 


Nuts 


Nuts 


Peanuts 


Almonds 


Peanuts 


Chestnuts 




Almonds 
Walnuts 


Cereals 


Cereals 


Cereals 


Wheat flour, Graham 


Oatmeal 


Wheat flour, Grah'm 


Oatmeal 


Bread, Graham 


Rye flour 


Bread-Whole wheat 


Bread-Whole wheat 


Oatmeal 


Wheat flour-white 


Bread — white 


Bread — whole wheat 


Barley, pearled 




Barley, pearled 


Meats 


Meats 


Meats 


Beef, lean 


Frog's flesh 


Frog's flesh 


Ham 


Veal, lean 


Beef, lean 




Beef, lean 


Veal, lean 




Chicken 


Chicken 
Ham 


Fish 


Fish 


Fish 


Salmon 


Pike 


Cod 


Cod 


Herring 


Pike 


Halibut 


Haddock 


Haddock 



PLANNING MENUS 319 



Dairy Products 


Dairy Products 


Dairy Products 


Milk 


Buttermilk 


Buttermilk 




Cheese 


Cheese 




Milk 


Milk 


Eggs 


Eggs 


Eggs 


Yolk- 


Yolk 


Yolk 


Whole 


Whole 


Whole 



From these tables various diets may also be arranged 
depending upon the particular case or the patient. For 
example, the anaemic patient would have a diet selected 
mainly from the foods containing iron and blood forming 
properties such as the following type of meal : 

Menu 

Spinach Soup Crackers 

Beefsteak 
Creamed Carrots Graham Bread and Butter 
Lettuce Salad 
Prune Whip Oatmeal Cookies 

In order to obtain a working basis for the comparison 
of foods in menu making, a common unit of foods is neces- 
sary. For this purpose the Standard Portion, which is the 
amount of each food which yields 100 calories of energy 
in the body has been established. 

For the proper working out of dietaries it is best to 
know what the standard portions or 100 calorie portions 
of many of the common foods are. Balanced meals come 
logically and easily when one thinks in 100 calorie portions, 
as, for example, 100 calories as one banana, or % glass of 
milk, etc., instead of 100 calories of banana as 5 ounces. 

Dietaries are made for an entire day or week, since 
it is not practical or necessary to have each meal balance. 
In some cases several days may not average up, but at 
least every week should meet the standard requirement. 



320 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



TABLE OF APPROXIMATE 100 CALORIE PORTIONS 

100 Calories Approx. Cost to be 

Foods Approx. Meas. Wt. in No. of Cal. worked out 

oz. from Pro- by Stu- 
tein dents 



Berries 

Blackberries Y. c. 

Blueberries Y c. 

Cranberries V% c. 

Currants Yz c. 

Strawberries % c. 

Beverages 

Cocoa IVi tbsp. 

Chocolate Yz sq. 

Breads 

Biscuits 1 

Boston brown 1 slice 

Graham bread 2 slices 

Graham crackers .... 2 

Rolls 3 

Rye bread 1 large slice 

Soda crackers 2 

Toast, white 2 small or 1 large 

White bread 2 slices Y* thick 

Whole wheat 2 slices 

Cake 

Chocolate layer 1 medium slice 

Cookies 2 medium 

Doughnuts Y 

Fruit Cake 1 small slice 

Gingerbread 1 serving 

Macaroons 2 

Sponge 2 pieces 

Cereals 

Cornmeal, uncooked.. 3 tbsp. 

Cornflakes Y c - 

Cream of wheat Yi c. 

Hominy 3 tbsp. 

Macaroni, uncooked.. 4 sticks 

Rice, uncooked 2 tbsp. 

Rolled oats, uncooked 1 tbsp. 

Shredded wheat 1 biscuit 

Cheese 

American 1 Yi in. cubes 

Cheddar 13^ in. cubes 

Cottage Yi c 

Swiss YYl in- cubes 



6 

4 

7.5 

6 

9 

.7 
.5 

2 
1.5 

1.5 

.75 
1.5 
1.5 

.75 

.8 
1.5 
1.4 



.75 



1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

.75 

.75 

3.25 

.8 



9 

3 

3 

10 
10 

17 
8 

14 
9 
14 
10 
14 
14 
10 
10 
14 
15.9 

7 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6.1 

6 

10 
10 
10 

9.2 
15 

9.2 
16 
12 

25 
24 
76 

25.5 



PLANNING MENUS 



321 



Foods 100 Calories 

Approx. Meas. 

Desserts 

Apple Pie 1/12 of pie 

Cornstarch pudding. . 3^ c. 
Chocolate cornstarch . 1 serving 

Custard pie 1/12 of pie 

Gelatine jelly 4 tbsp. 

Lemon pie 1/12 of pie 

Mince pie 1/16 of pie 

Plain ice cream 1 serving 

Pumpkin pie 1/12 of pie 

Eggs 2 small 

Fats 

Butter 1 tbsp. 

Cottonseed 1 tbsp. 

Lard 1 tbsp. 

Oleomargerine 1 tbsp. 

Olive oil 1 tbsp. 

Fish 

Bass 1 serving 

Codfish }i c. 

Halibut steak 1 serving 

Herring, smoked 1 whole 

Lobster 1 serving 

Oysters 5 medium size 

Salmon 1 serving 

White fish 1 serving 

Flour 

Cornmeal 3 tbsp. 

Buckwheat 3 tbsp. 

Graham 3 tbsp. 

Rye 3 tbsp. 

Wheat 3 tbsp. 

Whole wheat 3 tbsp. 

Fruits 

Apples 2 medium 

Apples, dried 4 

Apricots, dried 2 

Bananas 1 

Berries, (see list) 

Dates 4 

Figs, dried 1 

Lemons 3 

Oranges 1 large 

Olives 7 



Approx. Cost to be 
Wt. in No.of Cal. worked out 
oz. from by Stu- 

Protein dents 



.25 

,5 



5 
2 

75 
2 



1 
1 

1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

2.3 

.5 
.5 
.5 
.5 
.5 

4 

7 

3 

1.25 

4.25 

4.9 

1.5 

2.3 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

6 

1.25 
6.2 
3.5 



4 
11 
15 
10 
98. 

5. 

8 
10 

8 

36 



8 



80 
90 
61.2 
54 

86 
48.5 
38 
58 

10 

7.5 
15 

8 
12 
15 

2.7 
3 

7.8 
5.1 



1.25 

1.1 

4 

8 

1.4 



3 

5.2 

5 

9 

2 



322 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Foods 100 Calories 

Approx. Meas. 

FRUITS— (Continued) 

Peaches, fresh 2 medium size 

Peaches, canned 1 serving 

Pears . . . : 3 

Pineapple, fresh 5 slices 

Pineapple, canned 1 serving 

Prunes 4 

Raisins 2 tbsp. 

Rhubarb, cooked. . . .3}^ c. 

Meats 

Bacon 1 slice 

Beef, corned 1 serving 

Beef, dried 4 slices 

Beef, round, lean .... 1 serving 

Beef roast ." 1 serving 

Beef sirloin 1 serving 

Beef porterhouse 1 small steak 

Beef rump roast 1 serving 

Chicken, young 1 serving 

Ham, fresh 1 serving 

Ham, smoked 1 serving 

Lamb, chops 1 small 

Lamb roast, leg I serving 

Pork, chops 1 small 

Pork, tenderloin 1 serving 

Pork sausage 1 small 

Turkey 1 serving 

Veal, chops 1 chop 

Veal, roast 1 serving 

(All servings are of 

Milk 

Buttermilk V/ 2 c. 

Condensed 1 c. 

Cream, 20% \i c. 

Skimmed milk 1 c. 

Whole milk % Co 

Nuts 

Almonds 1 doz. 

Brazil nuts ^c. 

Chestnuts 1 doz. 

Cocoanut, grated .... 2 tbsp. 

Peanuts, shelled 1 tbsp. 

Pecans 1 tbsp. 

Walnuts Yi doz. 



Approx. Cost to be 
Wt. in No.ofCal. worked out 
oz. from by 

Protein Students 



8 


6 


7 


6 


6.2 


6 


8.1 


3 


2.25 


4 


1.25 


3 


1 


3 


15 


3 


.5 




1.5 


21 


2 


67 


2.25 


60 


2 


43 


1.5 


31 


1.3 


33 


1.5 


40 


3.3 


7. 


1.1 


19 


1.3 


30 


1 


24 


1.5 


38 


1.4 


21 


1.75 


39 


.75 


12 


1.2 


27 


2.3 


52 


2.3 


50 


average size) 


9.8 


32 


2 


12 


1.75 


5 


9.5 


36 


5 


19 


.5 


12. 


.5 


13 


1.4 


9 


.5 


4 


.7 


19 


.5 


10 


.5 


10 



PLANNING MENUS 



323 



Foods 



100 Calories 
Approx. Meas. 



Soups 

Celery 1 serving 

Corn 1 serving 

Pea 1 serving 

Cream of tomato .... 2 servings 
Vegetable 2 large servings 

Sugars, Syrups 

Loaf sugar 3 lumps 

Granulated sugar .... 2 tbsp. 

Powdered sugar 6 tsp. 

Maple syrup ^c. 

Molasses 2 tbsp. 

Honey 2 tbsp. 

Vegetables 

Asparagus, fresh .... 1 doz. stalks 

Beans, baked ^c. 

Beans, dried 3^ c. 

Beans, string 4 large servings 

Beans, lima 1 serving 

Cabbage 2 large servings 

Carrots 2 

Celery 1 bunch 

Corn, canned 1 serving 

Corn, green 1 ear 

Cucumbers 2 

Lettuce 2 large servings 

Onions 3 small 

Parsnips 1 

Peas, canned 2 servings 

Peas, fresh 1 large serving 

Peas, dried 2 tbsp. 

Potatoes, white 1 medium size 

Potatoes, sweet 1 small 

Pumpkin, cooked .... 1 c. 

Radishes 1 doz. 

Spinach 3 servings 

Succotash 1 serving 

Tomatoes, canned.. . . 1% c. 

Tomatoes, fresh 1 large 

Turnips 2 after cooking 



Approx. Cost to be 
Wt. in No. of Cal. worked out 
oz. from by 

Protein Students 



6.4 
3.2 

7 

9 

25.8 

.9 
.9 
.9 



25 



7.5 

2.75 

1 
11.2 

4.5 
11.25 

7.75 
19 

3.5 

3.5 
20.3 
18.5 

7.25 



.25 

.5 

.5 

.25 
.5 



5. 

6. 

3. 

1 

4. 

2. 
13 
12 
14.75 

3.5 
15.6 
15.5 

9 



15.3 
12 

27 
15 
85 





3 
.2 



18 

21.2 

25.5 

21.3 

21 

20 

9.8 
24 
12 
12 
18 
24 
13 
10 
26 
28 
27 
11 

5.5 
15.5 
17.9 
35 
14.5 
21 
15.8 
13 



Finished dietaries should always be tested for the balanced ra- 
tion. The test to apply being 

1. Does it contain the fuel value? 

2. Is there a good distribution of protein, fat and carbohydrates? 



324 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



3. Is the distribution of concentrated with dilute foods good? 

4. Is the approximate cost moderate or low? 

5. Is there a good supply of ash materials? 

6. Is there a balance of acid and base forming material? 

TYPICAL BALANCED MENU 

For a laboring man for one day 

Food Amount Calories Cost 

Breakfast 

Oatmeal 1 c. 250 $.01 

Sugar 2 tbsp. 50 .002 

Milk %c. 100 .02 

Banana 1 100 .015 

Bacon 4 slices 150 .03 

Milk 1 glass 150 .025 

Graham gem 2 200 .02 

Oleo 1 tbsp. 100 .005 

1,100 $.127 
Dinner 

Beef stew 

Beef H 200 .05 

Carrot 1 100 .005 

Onion 1 100 .005 

Potato \y 2 150 .01 

Flour 2 tbsp. 100 .002 

Fat 2 tbsp. 200 .003 

Bread 3 slices 150 .01 

Apple pie 1 piece 200 .02 

Coffee 1 c. .008 

Milk.... 2 tbsp. 25 .005 

1,225 $.118 
Supper 

Baked beans 1 c. 250 $.015 

Rye bread 2 large slices 200 .01 

Oleo 1 tbsp. 100 .005 

Prunes M c. 200 .02 

Doughnut 1 200 .02 

950 $.07 



1,100 

1,225 

950 



$.127 
.118 
.07 



Total for day 3,275 



$.315 



PLANNING MENUS 325 

Standard dietaries can be worked out from any table 
of food materials (as given in Farmers' Bulletin 142, of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture) showing the percen- 
tage of nutrients and calorie equivalents, by keeping in 
mind the relation of protein to carbohydrates plus the fat 
reduced to carbohydrate values. 

Substitution of one food for another will be necessary 
to keep the nutritive ratio correct, and with a little practice 
and experience in working out a few dietaries, one obtains 
a better knowledge of food compositions than in any other 
way. Dietaries are made for an entire day or week, since 
it is not practical or necessary to have each meal balance. 
In some cases several days may not average up, but at 
least every week should meet the standard requirement. 

APPLICATION 

1. Work out dietaries for school girl, at 15c, 25c and 
35c a day. 

2. Girls work out and demonstrate with materials 100 
calorie portion of different foods. 

3. Plan dietary for family of five at $1.50 per day, 
where the wage earner gets $4.50 to $6.00 per day. 

4. Calculate your own energy requirement, also your 
father's. 

5. Plan a day's dietary for yourself, and one for your 
father. 



LESSON 29. 

MENU BUILDING 

To plan a daily menu which will provide the kind 
and amount of food required by each member of the fam- 
ily is the most important part of the housewife's duties, 
and requires much time, thought and a knowledge of foods. 
To plan for the day's meals as a unit or even a week at a 
time is much better than to plan for each separate meal. 
The menu builder must have a general idea of the classes 
of food and the specific functions of food in the body, to- 
gether with a knowledge of the food and energy require- 
ments of each member of her family. 

All five of the food classes should be represented in the 
diet in at least two meals each day and, if there is not the 
proper balance of food in a day's menu, it should be righted 
the second day. 

Menus should contain, in addition to the proper bal- 
ance of the food classes, foods supplying the mineral sub- 
stances; iron, phosphate and calcium, which play an 
important role in the body, together with those which 
furnish bulk, as coarse breads and the cellulose of green 
vegetables. 

Factors Governing Meal Plans. — The first things to 
determine are the types of menu plans which fit the require- 
ments of the family. Age and occupation are the chief 
factors governing the type of menu, although season, 
nationality and condition of health also must have con- 
sideration. 

If several children of varying ages need to be provided 
for, milk and eggs must have a generous place in their 
diet, on account of the mineral and protein material which 
is present in very desirable form for growth. Old persons 
require much the same food materials as children. 

(326) 



MEN U B UILDING 327 

Adults leading an active life must have more hearty 
foods and meals than those of sedentary occupation and 
a man more than a woman. 

Climate and season require a change in food plans. 
In cold weather more energy-giving foods and those which 
necessitate greater digestive activity may be used. Such 
foods as pork, baked beans, rich pastry, sausage, hot breads, 
and plum puddings may be served to adults in cold cli- 
mates and during the winter months with no apparent 
difficulty in digestion or ill results, while it would be almost 
criminal to serve them during hot weather. Foods easy 
of digestion, as fresh fruit and green crisp vegetables, 
that serve to cool the body, lean meat, and meat substi- 
tutes should prevail during the hot summer days. 

Too frequent and rapid drinking of ice-cold beverages, 
as well as eating ices and all frozen dishes rapidly, is harm- 
ful, since they chill the digestive organs and retard the 
digestive action. 

It would be impossible to plan set diets for every one of 
the same age and occupation, since nationality and food 
habits of the family must be considered. A very pleasing 
food combination or dish for one family may not please an- 
other one in the same block. 

Food habits of children are easily formed and right 
habits are just as easy to establish as wrong ones, if the 
menu builder will plan wisely and never let exceptions 
occur. Where poor health and disease require special 
diets these must be planned separately in severe cases. 
In mild cases, simply providing some foods in the menu 
which are easy of digestion and especially suited to the 
needs of the patient in the case of adults would be all that 
would be necessary and the patient may omit such foods 
as would be harmful. 



328 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Digestion must always be considered as a part of any 
meal plan. Foods of varying nature, such as liquid and 
solid, easy or difficult of digestion, should make up the 
menu, in order to gain the best results, and not place too 
much work upon any of the digestive organs. 

It is a poorly planned menu which offers two foods 
difficult of digestion in one day. One is a sufficient tax 
on the digestive organs. Such foods may be distributed 
along in a week's plan and not be harmful. These foods 
comprise the fatty foods, fried foods and concentrated 
food, such as cheese. 

The flavor, color, texture and manner of serving a food 
have much to do with the interest and appetite. Never 
serve a meal lacking in color, flavoring, or variety no mat- 
ter how well balanced it may be, but avoid serving two 
dishes of the same flavor in the same meal, as pea soup, 
creamed peas, or tomato salad and tomato soup. Courses 
should contrast in flavor, a mild course being followed by 
one more pronounced. Strong seasonings which destroy 
natural food flavors are harmful. 

Bread, butter and milk may be served in the same 
form each day. The bread may be changed easily, but 
no other food should be served in the same form twice 
the same day. 

Several foods which do not harmonize in color may easi- 
ly spoil the whole appearance of the meal, such as carrots, 
and tomatoes. Only natural colorings, such as green pep- 
per, parsley, tomatoes, pimentos, grated egg yolks, and 
orange rind should be used to form a color scheme. The 
artificial colors are seldom necessary. Center pieces of 
simple flowers in a pretty vase or basket, or fruit, may be 
used for a color effect. Garnishes should be simple and 
edible. Too lavish a garnish is worse than none. 



MEN U B UILDING 329 

The texture of dishes should vary, that is, do not serve 
two creamed dishes in one course. Courses should vary 
in texture also. A liquid course like soup should be fol- 
lowed by a solid food. Many combinations of food are 
quite generally used, which bring out a pleasing contrast 
in flavor and texture. Chief among those commonly 
used are crackers with soup, cranberry sauce with fowl, 
wafers with cheese, apple sauce with pork. 

The manner of serving a food should always be simple, 
dainty, attractive, varied. To always serve a food in the 
same dish becomes monotonous. Keen interest may be 
maintained in simple common foods with a little change 
in service. Perfectly fresh linen and dishes are great 
assets in proper table service. 

Where seasons are short of fruit and vegetables, it is 
necessary to make frequent use of them in the diet. Var- 
iety may be obtained by preparing them in different ways. 
Use of seasonable food is a great aid in reducing the cost 
of meals. Dried fruits are high in food values and also 
aid in reducing cost, but often fail to appeal to the appetite 
in preparation. Many attractive methods of serving 
them should be used instead of always stewing. 

Variety is very desirable in meals, but too much at one 
time makes it more difficult to plan for the future. Dishes 
which are especial favorites with the family may be re- 
peated more often than others but they should not be 
served too often; for few dishes will withstand such a test. 
Never repeat a week's menus, or have regular days for a 
dish. It is much more interesting for the family to wonder 
"what we will have for dinner," than to know "this is the 
day for pork or meat substitute." 

An entirely new dish or combination of dishes occa- 
sionally is welcome. 



330 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Rules for Building Menus. 

Serve some food from each class of food each meal. 

Serve whole milk, eggs, and fresh vegetables every day 
of the year if possible. Include in each meal the foods 
which are needed by each member of the family. 

Serve easily digested foods for children and old people. 
Serve the hearty energy food for active adults. 

Simple, well cooked foods are better than elaborate 
dishes. 

Serve a few dishes at one meal and see that no one food 
class predominates at a meal. For example, potatoes and 
rice are both starchy foods and nearly equivalent. One 
is sufficient at a meal. Macaroni and cheese and meat 
are protein and should not be served at the same time, or 
fried foods with rich whipped cream desserts or oil salads, 
which all represent the fatty class. 

Carbohydrate foods should have both starches and 
sugar well represented with more starch than sugar. 

Remember that many foods contain more than one 
class of foods and are valuable in several ways. For ex- 
ample, milk furnishes fat and sugar in addition to protein. 
Eggs furnish fat and minerals in convenient form as well 
as protein. 

There is no connection between nutritive value and 
price of food. One must learn to think of nutritive value 
when planning menus. Some of the foods richest in nu- 
trients are low in price, but a low price does not always 
signify food value. The best way to reduce cost of menus 
is by substitute foods of equal value but of less cost. 

Foods which stimulate digestive organs should come 
first in a meal, as fruit for breakfast and soup for dinner 
There should be at least one hot dish in each meal. 

Arrange preparation of meals to save time and fuel. 



MENU BUILDING 



331 



Use the oven for several things at one time. Never 
plan a roast without using the oven for the preparation of 
vegetables, dessert for next day's lunch or supper all at 
the same time. 

Cold desserts should be made in the early morning 
before washing breakfast dishes. Much of the dinner 
arrangements may be made ready early in the day, vege- 
tables made ready and desserts and soup prepared. 

Plan ahead for left-overs from one day to provide lunch 
material the day or two days after. 

Use a fireless cooker for long slow cooking processes, 
as for cooking cereals. 

Foundation Menus. — Foundation menus suggesting 
types of menus for breakfast, lunch and dinner suitable 
for persons with varying muscular activity have been 
found to be of great assistance to the menu builder. 

The first is suited to persons of sedentary habits and 
gradually increases for those of greater muscular activity. 

Breakfast: 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


Fruit 


Fruit 


Fruit 


Fruit 


Bread 


Cereal 


Cereal 


Cereal 


Beverage 


Bread 


Eggs 


Meat 




Beverage 


Bread 


Another hot 






Beverage 


dish 
Bread 
Beverage 


Lunch or 


Supper: 






I 


II 


III 


IV 


Hot dish of 


Hot dish or 


Soup 


Soup 


soup or 
meat sub- 
stitute. 

Bread 

Beveage 


salad 

Bread 

Simple des- 
sert 

Beverage 


Hot dish or 
salad 

Bread 

Dessert 

Beverage 


Two hot dishes 
Bread 
Dessert 
Beverage 



332 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Dinner: 






I 


II 


III 


Meat 


Soup 


Soup 


Vegetable 


Meat 


Meat 


Bread 


Vegetable 


Two vege 


Dessert 


Bread 


tables 


Beverage 


Dessert 


Bread 




Beverage 


Dessert 
Beverage 



IV 

Soup 

Meat 

Two vegetables 

Salad 

Bread 

Dessert 

Beverage 

Dinner. — Dinner is the heartiest meal of the day and 
usually contains food in some form representing each of 
the five food classes. In planning the menus for a day the 
dinner plan should be considered first. This then is fol- 
lowed by the breakfast the next day and the lunch. This 
provides a working plan from one morning to another, 
and, if help is employed, sufficient directions may be given 
one morning to suffice until the next. 

When unexpected guests arrive but little adjusting of 
the plan is required except perhaps an addition of a vege- 
table or a simple salad or entree. 

The meat dish is the basis of the dinner plan and must 
be decided first. This decided, the vegetables which ac- 
company the meat selected may be planned for, followed 
by the soup and dessert. 

The menu charts on pages 338-341 are aids in selecting 
the accompaniments to the meat dish. 

Choice cuts of meat are expensive and should be used 
in moderation. Cheap cuts which supply more nutriment 
for less cost may be prepared in many ways and serve the 
same purpose as expensive cuts. On account of the 
longer time required it is best to cook such meats in water 
or steam. 

Some persons find they are better when meat is served 
only three or four times a week; others require it at least 



MENU BUILDING 333 

once every day, but only active workers should have it 
more than once a day. 

In the light dinner menus for sedentary individuals, 
light meats, as beef, lamb, poultry, are better than too 
much fat meat and pork. Active workers can use more of 
the heavy meat dishes in cold weather, but too much pork 
is never good.. 

Most any of the cuts of meat are adapted to the dinner 
menu and there are endless ways of preparation. Beef 
is the standard meat and furnishes more food value, along 
with mutton, than any other meat. Fowl and fish are 
easier of digestion and make pleasing additions to the diet. 

Meat substitute dishes take the place of meat in any 
menu and should never be served at the same time with 
meat. 

The vegetable which is commonly used is white po- 
tato in the North and rice or sweet potato in the South. 
Rice, hominy and macaroni used occasionally in place of 
white potato make a good variety, but should not be used 
at the same time with white potatoes. Plenty of fresh 
fruit and vegetable should be served also to make up for 
the lack of mineral salts furnished by potatoes. When two 
vegetables are served, never serve sweet potatoes with 
white potatoes. Select one fresh succulent vegetable, if 
possible. There is no better way of introducing mineral 
salts, vitamines and bulk in our food than with fresh 
vegetables every day. 

Where season and market prohibits the use of fresh 
ones, canned or dried may be used. Two of the same class 
and nature, as peas and beans, should never be served at 
the same time. Neither should two creamed vegetables 
appears at one meal. One creamed, one baked is better. 
In the foundation menus Dinner I contains only potato 



334 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

with meat. Dinners III and IV have additional vegetables. 
The selection of these depends mainly upon the meat 
selected. If a heavy meat is served, a light vegetable ac- 
companies it and vice versa. Compare beef-pork charts, 
page 340. 

The soup at dinner serves to stimulate the digestive 
organs rather than to furnish any food value. This should 
be well seasoned and hot, and free from fat. Many soup 
accessories are served, such as crackers, croutons, bread 
sticks, etc 

Stock soups, as consomme, bouillon, vegetable, with 
meat as their basis, are best for dinner. These may be 
made of many combinations of beef, fowl, and vegetable. 
A vegetable soup without meat is also good. The cream 
soups, as pea, bean, lentil, are not suitable for dinner, as 
their food value is very high. These make excellent lunch- 
eon soups, when protein material is lacking and the other 
dishes of the meal are lighter. 

Salads for dinner should consist of only fresh vegetables 
or fruits with crisp salad greens (lettuce, endive) served 
with a good dressing. Heavy salads of meat, fish and egg 
should furnish a main dish at luncheon or supper. 

Desserts for dinner should be light puddings, fruit or 
ices, depending on the nature of the meat and vegetable 
courses. If these are heavy, then a very light dessert, 
simple fruit or ice is better. If the meat dish is a substi- 
tute dish, then one of the egg puddings, as custard, 
or a heavier dessert may be chosen. Desserts which 
require little preparation, as fresh or canned fruit, aid in 
lessening the work where other household cares are nec- 
essarily heavy, and are better than rich pastries. 

Breakfast. — This meal contains more of the bread and 
cereal foods with a little fat and sugar, increased in protein 



MEN U B UILDING 335 

by the addition of eggs, milk and meat as the activity 
increases. 

The fruit may be fresh, canned or stewed dried fruit. 
Fresh fruit in season may be replaced in winter by canned or 
dried. Serving dried fruit too often becomes tiresome. 
Alternate with fresh and canned fruit. Fruit canned with 
little sugar is better than with too heavy a syrup, which 
frequently interferes with digestion. 

Cereals may be either cooked or the prepared varieties. 
The cooked cereals, requiring long slow cooking, such as 
rolled oats, Cream of Wheat, and hominy, are preferable 
in the heavy diets and furnish heat and energy food for 
cold weather, and are the only cereal foods for children. 
Very little sugar should be used on the cereal, as it is a 
carbohydrate food requiring sugar only to give it a sweet 
flavor. Too much sugar on food puts added work on the 
organs of elimination and causes ill results in many chil- 
dren. 

Meat substitutes for breakfast consist chiefly of eggs 
served in various ways, but, preferably poached, soft-cooked, 
shirred or in an omelet. See chapter on eggs. 

Breakfast meats consist of bacon, sausage, creamed 
fish and liver. Meat and meat substitutes are not used 
in a light breakfast for persons of sedentary habits, but 
are necessary in the diet of the active worker where a 
hearty breakfast should always be eaten. 

Breakfast breads are more varied than the bread at any 
other meal. For the light diet simple toast is better. 
The hot breads are more difficult of digestion and pan 
cakes and doughnuts should be avoided. 

The active worker, however, may use them quite 
often without ill results. 

Children should never be allowed hot breads, and toast 



336 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

is best made from bread two days old. Corn breads are 
the most difficult hot bread to digest, and, unless some 
wheat flour is used, are very rich in fat. 

Breads made from the whole grains are especially rec- 
ommended as the most healthful and economical. 

Beverages for breakfast include milk, cocoa and coffee. 
Milk and cocoa are especially valuable. Tea and coffee 
should be served only to adults. They have no value as 
food except what the cream and sugar may contain. 

For luncheon or supper, the hot dish consists mainly 
in a meat substitute dish, or a hot cream soup or puree 
or the hot dish may be replaced by a salad in the diet of 
an adult, when preferred. Many women prefer the salad 
to a meat substitute dish and, if the weather is hot or 
their work is light, it fits in admirably well. 

The hot dish is best for children and tired workers. 

The beverage at luncheon or supper may be the only 
hot thing in summer. Cocoa or chocolate is better than 
tea or coffee. 

Using left-overs to make the luncheon dish is economy. 
The character of the left-over may be entirely changed 
from its original serving at dinner a day or two before, 
and it will not be recognized in its new form. 

Luncheon plans depend largely on the breakfast plans. 
If a very light breakfast is used, a warm substantial lunch 
should follow, and vice versa. The luncheon should be the 
one meal to balance up the food values of the day. If 
any one food class has been short in the dinner or break- 
fast, the lunch is the place to remedy the deficit. 

Heavy desserts or fruits are one of the best means of 
balancing the food value. The very light lunch may have 
for the hot dish a cream soup with some bread, or often 
a good dessert with bread is ample for many persons. 



MEN U B UILDING 337 

On the days when a meat substitute is served for din- 
ner the lunch or supper will need to be more heartv as in 
III. 

Ill and IV may also be used as a basis for the company 
luncheon. A fruit cup or cocktail is better than a soup, 
if a hot dish follows. The soup is best when a salad fol- 
lows. 

The beverage is served with the warm course at a 
luncheon. 

See chart for luncheon dishes. 

The charts which follow are given to serve as aids in 
building menus. Several dishes of like nature are grouped 
together, anyone of which may be selected and the things 
which are suitable to serve with it are suggested. Only 
one dish from each column should be selected in one menu. 
That is, one meat, one vegetable or one salad and so on, 
depending on the choice of meats in the dinner menu. The 
type of breakfast or lunch menu will determine the choice 
of dishes and what to serve with them. 

Suggested dishes are taken from text. 

Finished menus should be tested to see if they meet all 
the requirements. A simple test to apply being:— 

1. Is it suited to the needs of each member of the 
family? 

2. Is it suited to season and market conditions? 

3. Is it within the income and allowance? 

4. Is there a good distribution of soft and solid food? 

5. Does it contain more than two decidedly flavored 
or colored foods? 

6. Does the week's menu offer variety from day to 
day? 

7. Does it call for simple table service and preparation 
of dishes? 



338 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



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340 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



MENU CHARTS (In Lesson 29) 

DINNER AIDS IN MENU BUILDING 



Meats 



I. Beef roast (ribs, flank, 
rump). 



II. Beef pot roast, loaf, 
stew. 



III. Steaks, porterhouse, 
tenderloin, hamburg, swiss, 
round. 



IV. Sweetbreads, liver, 
tripe, tongue, chatreuse. 



V. Lamb, mutton, roast 
chops, stew. 

VI. Veal, roast, chops, cut- 
lets, birds, loaf. 

VII. Pork, roast, chops, 
tenderloins, spare ribs. 



VIII. Ham, baked, fried, loaf, 
casserole. 



IX. Chicken, fried, roasted, 
fricassee, or pot pie. 



X. Fish, baked, fried, scal- 
loped, finnan haddie. 



XI. Oysters, lobsters, clams. 



XII. Turkey, duck, goose, 
venisoD . 



XIII. Meat substitutes, 
cheese or nut loaf, baked 
beans, macaroni and cheese. 



Vegetables 



Starchy 



Browned or mashed potatoes, 
hominy, parsnips, Yorkshire 
pudding, rice. 

Mashed potatoes, rice, 
macaroni. 



Baked potatoes or au gratin 
potatoes, corn, parsnips, 
artichokes, potato borders. 



Rice, white potatoes, peas, 
lima beans, string beans. 



Baked potatoes, rice, hominy, 
peas. 

Sweet potatoes, glaced, egg- 
plant, corn, peas, mashed 
potatoes. 

White potatoes, parsnips, rice 
with tomatoes, bread dress- 
ing. 

Baked potatoes, scalloped po- 
tatoes, hominy, string beans. 



Sweet potatoes, peas, wax 
beans. 



French fried potatoes, corn, 
rice, macaroni, potato balls. 



Same as X 



Mashed potatoes, corn, hom- 
iny, bread dressing, peas. 



White potatoes, rice, spaghetti, 



Succulent 



Cabbage, tomatoes, onions, 
spinach. 



Carrots, turnips, onions, 
squash, peas. 



Asparagus, tomatoes, cauli- 
flower, green peppers, mush- 
rooms. 



Spinach, beets, celery, onions, 
carrots. 



Beet greens, spinach, onions, 
Brussel sprouts, squash. 

Asparagus, cauliflower, onions. 



Onions, stewed apples, apple 
sauce, sauer kraut. 



Spinach, dandelion greens 
stuffed onions, cauliflower in 
cream. 

Brussel sprouts, cauliflower, 
peppers. 

Tomatoes, beets, stuffed pep- 
pers. 

Same as X 



Tomatoes, squash. 



Cabbage, tomatoes, onions, 
squash. 



TABLES 



341 



DINNER AIDS IN MENU BUILDING— Cont. 



Soups 



Clear tomato, Celery, 
spinach, vegetables. 



Noodle, vegetable, cel- 
ery, chicken. 



Asparagus, clear tomato, 
chicken with rice. 



Noodle, clam broth, ox 
tail, clear tomato. 



Vermicelli, vegetable con- 
somme. 

Bouillon, consomme, 
vegetable. 

Consomme, Julienne 



Consomme. 



Clear tomato, bouillon, 
celery. 



Bouillon, celery, tomato. 



Bread 



Bread or rolls 



Bread or rolls 



Hot bread, bis- 
cuit. 



Salad and 

Accompaniments 



Biscuit or muf- 
fins. 



Rolls or 
cuit. 



bis- 



Oyster, cream asparagus. 



Cream tomato, cream 
pea. vermicelli. 



Bread, rolls. 
Bread. 

Bread. 

Biscuits, rolls. 

Bread. 

Rolls. 

Rolls, biscuit. 



Lettuce, cucumber, 
fruit, olives, as- 
paragus. 

Lettuce, romaine, 
watercress, cu- 
cumbers, toma- 
toes, cabbage 
slaw. 

Same as I and II. 



Dessert 



Apple and celery, 
head lettuce, 
thousand island 
dressing. 

Cold slaw, mint 
jelly, fruit salad. 

Head lettuce, toma- 
to, cucumbers. 

Apple, celery, let- 
tuce, French 
dressing. 

Same as VII. 



Cranberry jelly, 
fruit, egg. 



Green peppers, let- 
tuce, cucumbers, 
French dressing. 

Waldorf, lettuce, 
French dressing, 
cabbage slaw. 

Apple salad, apple 
sauce, currant 
jelly, fruit salad, 
grape jelly. 



Biscuit or cin- Same as X. 
namon rolls. 



Fruit ice, canned 
fruit, apple tap- 
ioca. 

Rice pudding, berry 
short cake, fruit. 



Tapioca puddings, 
short cakes, gela- 
tin desserts, sher- 
bets. 

Cup custards, choc, 
cream, pastry. 



Apricot or peach 
ice. 

Quick steamed pud- 
ding. 

Fresh fruit ices. 



Baked apple, fruit 
jelly, date pud- 
ding. 

Short cakes, fruit 
souffles, ice 
cream, cake. 

Prune whip, snow- 
ball, pudding, 
apple sauce. 

Cornstarch pud- 
ding, sherbets. 



Sherbets, parfaits, 
pastry, short 
cakes. 



Custard pie, steam- 
ed puddings. 



Beverage 



Coffee or tea 
Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 
Coffee or tea 
Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 

Coffee or tea 



LESSON 30. 

MARKETING 

Rules for Marketing. — 

1. The woman, to manage her home successfully, 
should have a definite income or allowance and know how 
much of that should be spent for food. 

2. Order lists should be made at home before going to 
market. 

3. What supplies are needed should be known and 
ordered before one is entirely out of any article. A market- 
ing list should be kept in the kitchen, on which should be 
noted the items that are getting low. 

4 Marketing should be done as early in the day as 
possible, to allow time for delivery. 

5. One should go to market and make one's own selec- 
tions instead of ordering by telephone. 

6. One should patronize only reliable merchants who 
give first-class service. Weigh and inspect goods purchased 
and read labels to see that proper value is obtained for the 
money spent. 

7. Only markets that are perfectly sanitary and where 
the dress and habits of the clerks are neat should be patron- 
ized. 

8. Staples should be bought in quantity, if possible, 
and ordered therefore less frequently. Perishable foods 
should be purchased in small quantities every day or two. 

9. It shows a lack of planning to expect or ask more 
than one delivery a day. Emergency supplies on hand will 
take care of unexpected company demands. 

10. Clerks and delivery boys should not be asked for 
too much special service. 

11. Goods should be bought in season when prices are 

(342) 



MARKETING 343 

right and low. Goods out of season are always high, due 
to transportation and hothouse conditions. High prices 
do not signify quality. 

12. Cheap food below prevailing market prices is 
either damaged or of inferior grade. Everything should be 
examined before buying. 

13. The price of goods should be known before buying. 

14. The housekeeper should learn to substitute one 
food for another of like composition and character, in order 
to secure equal results in the menu for least money. 

15. Canned goods should be bought by size number of 
can and by trade name, never by price of can. Every whole- 
saler has special brand names. Test and compare grades 
as to weight, quality and price, then order in dozen or case 
lots, if possible, the brands found to be the best. 

16. Fancy and extra fancy brands all command fancy 
prices without giving any higher food value. They should 
not be ordered unless one can afford to buy them and 
only then for especial occasions. 

17. Package goods command higher prices than bulk 
foods. Labels and containers add to cost. Where large 
amounts are used, purchasing in bulk is best, if quantity 
will be used before food deteriorates by long storing. If 
small quantity is used, package goods often times are best; 
they are cleaner, and sanitary methods of handling make 
them worth an extra price. 

18. Buying in quantity more food of any kind than 
will be used during a season is extravagant. Foods lose 
considerable value in long storing and a fresh stock of food 
is always safer. 

19. Pay cash for goods when possible. If a credit 
system is used, bills should be paid promptly every week 
or month at most. Never allow a bill to go over. 



344 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



20. Never buy anything it will be impossible to pay 
for. Live within your income, no matter what it may be. 

21. Check bills and get a receipt when bills are paid. 
Keep all receipts. 

MARKET CHART 



Amount Material 



Cost 



pound butter 

pound sugar, granulated . . 
pound powdered sugar. . . . 

24 pounds flour 

qt. milk 

qt. cream 

qt. molasses 

doz. eggs 

cake yeast, compressed . . . 

pt. vanilla 

box soda 

pound baking powder. . . . 

box spice 

pound coffee 

pt. olive oil 

pound tea 

pound pkg. gelatin 

pound lard 

pound cheese 

doz. lemons 

oranges 

apples 

bananas 

peaches 

pound raisins 

pound prunes 

pound walnuts 

pound peanuts 

pound pecans 

pound almonds 

pound bacon 

pound buckwheat 

6 oz. rolled oats 

6 oz. cream of wheat 

pounds cornmeal 

5 pounds whole wheat flour. 
1 pound figs 



doz. 
doz. 
doz. 
doz. 



Amount Material 



Cost 



1 pound dates 

1 pound suet 

1 pound cheese 

1 pound tapioca 

1 pound rice. 

1 pound macaroni 

1 pound citron 

1 pound peanut butter . 

1 pound crackers 

1 pound corn starch 

1 pound sweet potatoes. . 

1 pound tea 

1 pound coffee 

1 pound chocolate 

1 pound grated cocoanut 
1 pound can tomatoes. . . 

1 pound can salmon 

1 pound can lobster 

1 pound can corn 

1 pound can peas 

1 pound can sardines. . . . 

1 pound can shrimp 

1 onion 

1 carrot 

1 turnip 

1 bunch celery 

1 bunch parsley 

1 head lettuce 

1 glass jelly. 

1 box berries 

1 pound tomato 

1 pound dried beans 

1 pound dried peas 

10 pounds suet 

1 qt. vinegar 

1 bar soap 



MARKETING 345 

APPLICATION 

1. Market trips, observing conditions in markets. 

2. Budget allowances for food under different conditions. 

3. Study of trade brands of canned goods at local stores. 
Comparison of brands. 

4. Personal marketing for meals, with cash. Each girl to have 
a definite assignment. 

5. Make complete market charts with prices, sizes, weights, 
trade names. 



LESSON 31 

HOME MANAGEMENT. HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 

The home as we know it has grown out of a need of 
shelter for the family. The home-makers have always 
been women; the care of the home and the management 
of all household duties have always been in their hands. 

Knowledge comes from study and practice, or In the 
actual doing. Every man spends several months or years 
in preparation for the business or trade he intends to enter. 
So every girl should spend time and study in fitting herself 
for her life work. 

It has been estimated that 95 per cent of the girls 
eventually take their places in the home. So it seems 
necessary to include in the education of every girl some 
study and practice in home management, if her home is 
to be conducted in a business-like manner. 

Good home management includes the selection and 
care of all materials used in the continuance of the home 
— the food, its preparation and service; the care of children; 
the management of servants; and the keeping of accurate 
household accounts. 

One of the most important features of good home 
management is system. With a system each day and week 
has its special duties to be performed, and each member of 
the household knows what he or she is responsible for. 

The home-maker must be thoughtful, have a good 
sense of values, and exercise good judgement in expendi- 
tures. She must be interested in her home and willing 

to help others. 

346 



HOME MANAGEMENT 347 

Servants. — Servants need wise supervision and are 
only too quick to recognize the worth of an employer. 
The woman who is able to retain good help exercises good 
judgement in the manner in which she treats her servants. 

Commending servants for things well done and refrain- 
ing from nagging or reprimanding them before others will 
result in better work and greater effort to please. 

A wage scale for help by which the wages increase 
at stated times or on the merit system will effect an im- 
provement in retaining efficient help. Servants are as 
ambitious as any other class of workers and move from 
one place to another in the hope of bettering themselves. 

Household Accounts. — The standards of living differs 
with individuals and families according to education, 
tastes, occupation, and country. 

The home system of accounts should be simple and 
easy to keep. A good plan is to divide the yearly income 
according to months and weeks and to keep all expenses 
well within the limits. Set aside a percentage of the 
salary for each class of expenditures — shelter, clothing, 
food, etc. As the income increases, the percentages of 
expenditures for some of the items usually increase in 
proportion up to a certain point. 

When the division of the income has been decided upon 
a system of book keeping will greatly aid in keeping track 
of each expenditure. A sample page of a simple system 
is here given. 

All stores send duplicate slips with each purchase. 
These should be kept together and used to check up with 
the monthly statement. In case of error these are of 
great value in correcting the account. 



ii*o 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Household Accounts 
Month of (summary) 



Items of Expenditures 


Amounts 


Totals 


Food 

Meat 








Milk and cream 








Groceries 
















Shelter 

Rent 








Insurance 








Taxes 








Repairs 














Total Shelter 


Clothing 














Total Clothing 


Operating Expenses 

Fuel 








Light 








Gas 








Ice 








Telephone 








Help 














Total Operating 


Education and Amusement 








Papers, Books, etc 








Traveling 















Total Ed. & Amus. 


Benevolence 

Church ..... 








Club dues 






















Total Benevolence 


Personal Accounts 














Total Pers. Accts. 


Emergencies 

Doctor 








Dentist 














Total Emergencies 


Incidentals 






Total Incidentals 


Total Expenses 






Income Balance (loss or 








savings) 



HOME MANAGEMENT 349 

The monthly statements may be carried forward each 
month, showing the balance; or a yearly summary may be 
drawn on a separate page, showing the expenditure totals 
and the complete credits or debits at the end of the year. 

Whatever the system employed in keeping the house- 
hold accounts, it should show: (1) The total income or 
cash received, (2) the total expenditures, (3) how the money 
was spent, and (4) the balance— savings or losses. 

Children should be taught to keep their own person- 
al accounts for each week or month, and be made respon- 
sible for an allowance, however small. 

APPLICATION 

1. Work out a suggestive outline of household duties 
and plan for a week's work in your home. 

2. Assign the duties of one maid. 

3. Assign the duties of two maids. 

4. Make out a household account record page for one 
month, using a typical family of four, including two chil- 
dren. 

5. Make out your own home expense account for the 
past month. 

6. Make out your own personal account for the past 
month. 



LESSON 32 

INVALID COOKERY 

Food for the sick is an important subject, and much 
time can be given to this one branch of cookery. The 
quantity and kind of food for patients must be varied 
according to the nature of the disease. A housekeeper 
with a knowledge of foods and food values suitable to 
different diets is of great assistance to the physician attend- 
ing the case, and is able to carry out his orders satisfac- 
torily and often can do without the services of a trained 
nurse in simple cases. 

Dietaries are classified, to assist nurses in caring for 
their patients, as liquid, soft, light, and full diets. 

A liquid diet includes milk, beef tea, broths, beef juice, 
strained gruels, egg nogs, cream soups, cocoa, and all 
other liquid foods. Tea and coffee must be avoided. 

A soft diet includes dishes in the liquid diet and also 
milk toast, soft-cooked eggs, jellies, boiled custards, junkets, 
ice cream, apple sauce, and cereals. 

A light diet includes soft-cooked eggs, baked custard, 
creamed toast, sweet breads, asparagus, scalloped oysters, 
gelatin jellies, baked apples, stewed prunes. 

A full diet, includes soups, meat, fish, eggs, cereals, 
vegetables, fruits, and desserts that are easily digested. 
Never give to any patient even the smallest amount of 
food difficult of digestion. 

Special diets are those ordered by a physician for special 
cases. 

(350) 



INVALID COOKERY 



351 



Rules for Serving Invalids. — 

1. Cook all food carefully and thoroughly. 

2. Serve hot food hot and cold food cold. 

3. Serve food daintly and attractively. 

4. Use the prettiest dishes and the best linen. 

5. Put a flower or a small plant on the tray to make it 
attractive. 

6. Plan to have surprises for the patient in the kinds 




Fig. 44. An invalid's tray. 

of food as well as in the ways it is served. This helps 
to create an appetite, which often is lacking. 

7. Always remove all bottles and signs of medicine 
from the sight of the patient, and remove the tray as soon 
as the patient has finished eating. 

APPLICATION 

These recipes are for individual portions suitable for one patient and 
for two girls working together in practice work in the kitchen. 

1. Dry Toast 

Method. — Slice stale bread in J/3 inch slices, remove 
the crusts, place in a toaster and dry thoroughly, turning 



352 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

occasionally. Toast a golden brown on both sides. The 

starch is dextrinized and made more easy of digestion by 

toasting. 

2. Milk Toast 

2 slices dry toast % c. scalded milk 

Yl tbsp. butter x /i tsp. salt 

Method. — Butter the toast, arrange on. a hot dish, pour 
the hot milk over it, and sprinkle with salt. 

3. Water Toast 

2 slices dry toast Yl tbsp. butter 

1 c. boiling water % tsp. salt 

Method. — Drop the slices of toast separately into the 
boiling water, remove to a hot dish, spread with butter, 
and serve at once. 

4. Oatmeal Jelly 

% c. rolled oats 1 % c. boiling water 

Pinch of salt 

Method. — Add the oats gradually to the boiling water, 
add the salt, boil 2 minutes, and then steam in a double 
boiler 45 minutes to 1 hour. Force through a fine strainer, 
mold, chill, and serve with sugar and cream. 

5. Barley Gruel 

1 tbsp. barley flour 1 c. water or milk 

2 tbsp. cold water x /i tsp. salt 

Method. — Add the 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water to the 
flour to make a thin paste; then add gradually to the scalded 
milk or boiling water while stirring constantly. Cook in a 
double boiler 20 minutes. Season and strain. 

6. Cracker Gruel 

1 tbsp. cracker crumbs % c. milk 

Pinch of salt 

Method. — Scald the milk, add the cracker crumbs, and 
cook over boiling water 10 minutes; season to taste. 



INVALID COOKERY 353 

7. Pasteurized Milk 

Method. — Put milk in sterilized, small-mouth glass 
bottles, stop with cotton batting or absorbent cotton, place 
bottles in a wire basket, and immerse the basket in a kettle 
of cold water. Heat water gradually to a temperature of 
from 160° to 170° F. Keep at this temperature 30 minutes; 
remove and cool bottles quickly and keep in cold water. 

8. Egg Nog 

1 egg 1 3^2 tbsp. sherry or 

% tbsp. sugar 1 tbsp. brandy or rum 

A few grains salt % c. cold milk 

Method. — Beat the egg slightly, add the sugar, salt, and 
the liquor, and then the milk gradually. Strain, and serve. 

9. Eggs in a Nest 
1 egg 1 tsp. butter 

1 slice of toast Pinch of salt 

Method. — Separate the yolk from the white of the egg, 
beat the whites until stiff, sprinkle with salt, and heap 
on a slice of toast. Make a depression or nest in the 
center, drop into this the whole yolk, place in a pan in 
the oven for 2 minutes. Place a tiny piece of butter in 
the center of the nest and serve at once. 

10. Beef Juice 

Method. — Broil a small piece of round steak, cut it into 
small pieces, squeeze the juice from it into a cup, season 
with salt, and serve. 

11. Beef Extract 

Method. — Cut round steak into small pieces. Put into 
a sterile canning jar, cover and place the jar into a kettle 
of cold water. Heat the water gradually and keep at a 
temperature of 130° F. for 2 hours. Turn meat from the 
jar and press until the juice is extracted. Season the 
juice with salt, and serve. 



354 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

12. Beef Tea 

1 pound of beefsteak cut from the round 2 c. cold water 

Salt to season 

Method. — Prepare the beef as for beef extract, put in a 
sterile jar or double boiler, add cold water, and heat grad- 
ually, keeping the temperature at 130° F. for 2 hours. 
Increase the temperature at the end of that time until 
the liquid becomes a chocolate color and the albuminous 
juices are slightly coagulated. This removes the raw 
taste of the tea. Season with salt. 

13. Mutton Broth 
2 pounds of mutton from the neck 
2 c. cold water 

Method. — Cut the meat in small pieces, soak in water 
1 hour. Simmer for 3 hours, strain, and remove the fat. 
3 tablespoonfuls of rice may be boiled and served with 
the strained broth. 



APPENDIX 

EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 

In all cases of emergencies, the thing to remember is 
self-control, and then to render first aid as quickly as 
possible. If the accident is serious, send for a physician 
at once, but many cases can be cared for by any one who 
understands first-aid treatments. 

Fainting is caused by mental impression, exhaustion, 
pain, heat, bleeding, overcrowded rooms, etc. The symp- 
toms are sudden unsconciousness, pale face, cool, moist 
skin, weak pulse, shallow breathing, and dilated pupils. 

Treatment. — If face is pale, get more blood to the brain. 
Lay the patient flat on his back with the head low and 
the legs raised; sprinkle cold water on his face, and gently 
apply ammonia or smelling salts to the nostrils to make 
him breathe. Get him out into the fresh air, and loosen 
the clothing about the neck and waist. An attack of 
fainting can often be prevented by sitting in a chair and 
thrusting the head down between the knees and holding 
it there until the face becomes flushed. If unconscious- 
ness is accompanied by a flushed face, elevate the head. 

Heat Stroke. — Heat stroke is the same as fainting. 

Treatment. — Apply cold water to the body and ice to 
the head. 

Bleeding from the Nose.— This is caused by excess 
blood pressure or from a foreign substance in the nose, 
and is often hard to check. 

Treatment. — Hold arms vertically above the head; put 
ice or cold water on back of the neck, between the shoulders, 
and over the root of the nose at the forehead ; very cold or 

(355) 



356 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

very hot water or hydrogen peroxide should be snuffed 
up the nose. Pressure by placing a roll of cotton or cloth 
under the upper lip next to the gum may be a benefit. Should 
the bleeding still continue, plug the nostrils with absorbent 
cotton; if the blood then runs in the throat from the back 
of the nose, the assistance of a surgeon will be required. 

Bleeding from a Cut. — If the blood is bright red and 
comes in spurts it is from an artery, and needs prompt 
attention. If the blood is bright red but flows slowly, it 
comes from a capillary. If blood is dark red or blue and 
flows steadily, it comes from a vein. 

Treatment. — Apply pressure above and below the cut. 
Raise the portion of the body that is cut. Bind the cut 
with antiseptic gauze bandage directly on the wound 
tight enough to stop the flow of blood. In severe bleeding 
use a tourniquet to tighten the bandage. This is made 
by putting a stick under the bandage and twisting it to 
tighten it. Ice, salt, and alum cause the blood to coagu- 
late and are used on wounds in cases of emergency 

Infection is caused by the presence of bacteria. 

Treatment. — Clean thoroughly a wound that has not 
bled freely, by washing with a salt solution or alcohol, or 
a weak solution of carbolic acid, not more than 3 per cent; 
then bind with antiseptic gauze. 

Burns are caused by contact with dry heat, as from 
hot metal; scalds are caused by moist heat, as from liquids, 
including acids. 

Treatment. — Cover with a wet cloth sprinkled with 
baking soda or dipped in boric acid, or apply vaseline or 
olive oil. Usually a cloth saturated with olive oil will 
relieve the pain. Where the skin is destroyed, watch the 
burn carefully to prevent infection. In case the clothing 
catches on fire, wrap the patient in a heavy rug, blanket, 



EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 357 

or coat at once to smother the flames. Send for a physician 
in severe cases. 

Frost bite is caused by prolonged exposure of the body 
to a very low temperature. It produces a loss of vitality 
and the affected part becomes stiff and white. 

Treatment. — Never take a frozen person into a warm 
room or apply heat to a frozen part. The temperature 
must be raised gradually. Remove the clothing, if any, 
on the affected part, and rub with snow or cold water; 
later rub with the hand carefully to restore the circulation 
but do not injure the skin. Stimulants, like brandy, may 
be given in severe cases, or allow the patient to inhale the 
fumes of ammonia from a handkerchief to restore con- 
sciousness. 

Asphyxia. — This is a condition of unconsciousness due 
to a great diminution of oxygen in the blood, caused by an 
obstruction in the air passages of the throat or lungs, or 
to the presence of poisonous gases, such as coal gas from 
stoves or illuminating and sewer gas. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause, in order that the lungs 
may be supplied with the proper amount of pure air. 
Re-establish respiration by artificial means. This is 
produced by moving the arms upward above the head, 
to elevate the ribs and expand the chest; then slowly low- 
ering the elbows and pressing them against the sides of 
the body. Repeat this movement fifteen times a minute 
until the patient is recovered. Stimulate the heart and 
the circulation by the use of stimulants, warm applications, 
and friction. Send for a physician and the pulmotor. 

Earache. — Apply hot applications. See a physician as 
soon as possible. 

Foreign Substance in the Eye. — Particles of dust or 
cinders may lodge under the lids or in the eyeball. 



3.1S DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Treatment. — In the latter situation a physician should 
always be consulted. To examine the lower lid, draw 
down with the fingers and at the same time tell the patient 
to look up; if the particle is not there, evert the upper 
lid by standing behind the patient, with his head upon 
your chest; and tell him to look down at his feet. At 
the same time press a match or the end of a finger firmly 
about a quarter of an inch behind the margin of the lid, 
draw the lid down by the lashes and turn it upward and 
outward over the match or fingertip. If the particle is 
not visible, search the ball of the eye carefully for it, and 
if found lift it gently by a quick movement with the point 
of a burnt match or toothpick. 

Poisons are caused by the presence in our bodies of 
substances which act upon the body tissues and life itself, 
and must be treated at once. Poisons are of several kinds : 
(1) Corrosive poisons, which act instantly; (2) irritant 
poisons, which produce inflamation of the tissues; and (3) 
narcotic poisons, which produce unconsciousness. 

Treatment. — Send for a physician at once; in the mean- 
time try to produce vomiting to expell the poison, and give 
an antidote for the poison. To produce vomiting, run 
the finger down the throat or give an emetic. A good 
emetic is a mixture of 3^ pint warm water and a table- 
spoonful of mustard or salt, or plenty of warm water is 
often effective. 

An acid and an alkaline substance neutralize each other 
when put together; so in case of acid poisoning give an 
alkali (baking soda) ; and in the case of alkali poisoning, 
give an acid (dilute vinegar) for an antidote. 

Antidotes injure the inside of the stomach and must be 
followed by some substance like milk, white of egg, or 



EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 



359 



oil. Stir the whites of four eggs in a quart of water and 
make the patient drink as much as he can. 

Poisons and their Antidotes 



Corrosive poisons 
Acids — Carbolic 
Nitric 
Sulphuric 
Hydrochloric 
Oxalic 

Alkalis 
Ammonia 
Lye 
Potash 

Irritant poisons 
Rat poison 
Arsenic 
Paris green 
Iodine 

Phosphorus matches 
Bichloride of mercury 

Narcotic poisons 

Alcohol 

Chloroform 

Opium 

Morphine 

Laudanum 

Aconite 

Strychnine 

Camphor balls 



Give an emetic, — an alkali; as, 
limewater or a solution of 
soda and water. Follow 
later with white of eggs. 



Give vinegar and water, or 
lemon juice. Large dose 
of oil or milk to form a« 
emulsion. 

Give an emetic, — warm water 
and mustard. Follow with 
milk or white of eggs. 



Same, also Epsom salts. 



Give an emetic. Keep the 
patient awake. Gire 
strong black coffee. Use 
artificial respiration and 
stimulation. 



SCORE CARDS FOR JUDGING COOKERY* 

BREAD 



Points 



General appearance: Loaf well rounded, not cracked at sides, evenly 
baked 

Baking: Crust even chestnut-brown in color, and about H-inch thick; 

center of loaf well done, not soggy 

Odor: Sweet and nutty 

Flavor: Sweet and nutty, suggesting taste of wheat . . ... 

Grain and Texture: Cut surface should have silky appearance, and be 

evenly honey-combed with rather small holes 

Lightness: A well-risen loaf is about twice the size of the dough when 

placed in pan; cut surface elastic to touch . 

Crumb: Glossy and moist, not gummy when pressed, or dry and crumbly 
Color: Inside of loaf creamy white, not snowy white 



Total 



BAKING POWDER BISCUIT 

General appearance: Shape evenly risen to about twice original height, 
not conical or sunken; surface not too rough or too smooth and shiny, 
no large cracks or holes; color a nice, uniform brown, not speckled or 
floury . . 

Baking: Crust golden brown, not too thick or thin; inside light 

Lightness: Inside light and white, well baked 

Texture: Inside moist but not waxy, crumbly, or doughy .... 

Flavor: That of well-cooked wheat cereal 



Total 



PASTRY 

Baking: Brown top and bottom 

Texture: Brittle, flaky 

Flavor: Not greasy; pleasant taste 



Total 



Total 



WHITE COOKIES 



General appearance: Slightly rounded over top and sides; no flour on 
surface; edges smooth and unbroken 

Texture: Holes of aeration small and uniform in size; delicate, seeming to 
melt in the mouth; thinner and more brittle than butter cake, but not 
as brittle as a wafer 



Total 



CAKE 



10 
10 

30 

20 

10 
10 

5 

100 



20 
25 
25 
15 
15 

100 



35 
40 
25 



DOUGHNUTS 

Well rounded; baked a good brown; comparatively 



LOO 



General appearance: 

smooth 15 

Lightness: Light; elastic to the touch 25 

Texture: Holes of aeration fine and numerous 25 

Flavor: Not too spicy, or oily, or sweet 35 



100 

50 

50 
100 



General appearance 

Lightness 

Texture 

Tenderness 

Baking 

Moisture 

Flavor 

Totals 





Chocolate 








Sponge 


Cake (loaf, Fruit 


Cake 


unfrosted) Cake 


10 


10 ... . 10 


30 


30 






35 


25 


25 






10 


15 


10 








20 


20 

5 






25 
10 
10 



100 



100 



100 



♦Arranged from Minnesota Extension Bui. No. 19. 

(360) 



TABLES 

Showing Nutrients and Energy of Digestible Portions of 
some Common Foods 



Kind of food materials 



ANIMAL FOOD 

Beef, fresh: 

Chuck, ribs 

Loin, medium 

Ribs 

Round, medium 

Shoulder and clod 

Beef, dried and smoked . . 
Veal: 

Cutlets, round 

Leg 

Mutton: 

Leg 

Loin 

Pork, fresh: 

Loin, chops 

Ham 

Pork, salted and smoked: 

Bacon 

Ham 

Salt, fat 

Poultry: 

Fowl 

Turkey ] 

Fish, fresh: 

Cod, dressed 

Mackerel 

Shellfish: 

Oysters, solids 

Fish, preserved and canned 

Cod, salt 

Salmon, canned 

Eggs, unoooked 

Dairy products: 

Whole milk 

Skim milk 

Cream 

Butter 



ti 



Per 
cent. 
16.3 
13.3 
20.8 

7.2 
16.4 

4.7 

3.4 
14.2 

18.4 
10 

19.7 
10.7 

7.7 
13.6 



25.9 
22.7 

29.9 
44.7 



24.9 



11.2 



Per 
cent. 
52.6 
52.5 
43.8 
60.7 
56.8 
53.7 

68.3 
60.1 

51.2 
42 

41.8 
48 

17.4 

34.8 

7.9 

47.1 

42.4 

58.5 
40.4 

88.3 

40.2 
63.5 
65.5 

87.0 
90.5 
74 
11 



• S'fl 

— 3 
O 



Per 
cent. 
1.4 
1.6 
1.8 
1.4 
1.2 
4.5 

1.2 
1.1 

1.4 
2 

1.8 
1.9 

4.4 
3.1 
5.4 

1.2 
1.6 

.5 

.7 

.6 

5.1 
1.9 
1.1 

.5 

.3 
1.1 
4.9 



D igestible nutrients 



Ch 



Per 

cent. 

15 

15.6 

13.5 

18.4 

15.9 

25.6 

19.5 
15 

14.6 
13.1 

13 
13.1 

8.8 

13.8 

1.8 

13.3 
15.6 

10.8 
9.9 

5.8 

15.5 
21.1 
12.7 

3.2 
3.3 
2.4 
1 



Per 
cent. 
14.3 
16.6 
20 
12.2 
9.3 
6.6 

7.1 
7.5 

14 
26.9 

23 
24.6 

59.1 
31.7 
81.9 

11.7 
17.5 



1.2 

.4 

11.5 

8.8 

3.8 

.3 

17.6 

80.8 



>> 

o 

Li 

e3 
O 



Per 
cent. 



3.3 



5 

5.1 
4.5 



Per 
cent. 

0.6 
.7 
.5 
.8 
.7 

5.5 

.8 
.7 

.6 
.5 

.6 
.6 

3.1 
3.2 
2.9 

.5 
.6 

.6 
.5 

.8 

13.9 
2 

.7 

.5 
.5 
.4 

2.3 



2-v 

So 

>% 

3 

fa 



Calo- 
ries. 
910 
1,025 
1,135 
890 
715 
790 

695 
625 

890 
1,415 

1,245 
1,320 

2,720 
1,635 
3,555 

765 
1,060 

220 
370 

225 

325 
915 
635 

310 

165 

8S5 

3.410 



(361 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Showing Nutrients and Energy of Digestible Portions op 
some Common Foods {continued) 





CO 

3 

s 


6 
«j 

ctj 

* 


3 

rt) CO 

If 

•o a; 
fl*E 

— i 3 

«d c 

o 

H 


Digestibk 


! nutrients 




Kind of food materials 


.5 

*S 

-M 

O 

14 

fa 


4-> 

fa 


to 

CI 

*•> 
rt 

h 

•a 
>> 
Jd 
o 
.a 

H 

3 

U 


u 

V 

a 
i> 

« a 

;! 

ca 3 

<J fa 


VEGETABLE FOOD 

Cereals, etc.: 

Cornmeal 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 
12.5 
7.8 
12.9 
12.3 

12 
9.6 

35.3 

6.8 

12.6 

70 

77.7 

62.6 

44.2 

55.2 

94.3 

63.3 

48.9 

58 

63.4 

85.9 


Per 
cent. 
3.3 
5.1 
2.9 
2.9 

3.4 

3.8 

2.9 
4.5 

7.9 
.8 
.6 

1.2 
.4 

1.6 
.5 

1.2 

1.6 

1.7 

1 

1 


Per 

cen/. 
7.8 

14.2 
5.8 
6.8 

9.7 
10.3 

7.8 
8.2 

17.5 
1.1 
1.2 
1.5 

.6 
1.2 

.7 

.3 

.7 
.9 
.5 
.8 


Per 

cent. 

1.7 

6.6 

.8 

.3 

.9 
1.6 

1.2 
10.9 

1.6 
.1 
.2 
.1 
.2 
.5 
.4 

.3 
.4 
1.1 
.1 
.5 


Per 

cent. 
73.9 
64.9 
77.1 

77.4 

73.6 
73.7 

52 

68.3 

57.8 
7.3 
4.6 

14 
4.3 

20.8 
3.7 

9.7 

12.9 

13 
7.7 
6.3 


Per 

ceni. 

.8 

1.4 

.5 

.3 

.4 
1 

.8 
1.3 

2.6 
.7 
.7 
.6 
.3 
.7 
.4 

.2 
.5 

.3 
.5 


CaJo- 

rt'd 
1,640 


Oat breakfast food 




1,800 


Rye flour 




1,620 
1,625 






Wheat flour, patent pro- 
cess 




1,635 


Wheat breakfast food , 
Bread, etc.: 

Bread, white wheat .... 




1.680 
1,200 


Crackers, cream 




1,925 


Vegetables: 




1,520 


Beets, fresh 


20 
15 
20 
50 
20 


160 


Cabbage 


115 




295 


Squash 


100 


Sweet potatoes, fresh . . . 
Tomatoes 


440 
95 


Fruits: 

Apples 


25 
35 
25 
27 
5 


190 


Bananas 


260 


Grapes 


295 


Oranges 


150 


Strawberries 


150 







Chemical Composition of Foods 



Proteins 


Fats 


Carbohydrates 


Ash 


Water 


Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 


Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 


Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

The two latter 
i n the pro- 
portion found 
in water. 


Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Chlorine 

Sodium 

Potassium 

Calcium 

Magnesium 


Hydrogen 
Oxygen 



TABLES 363 

Foods Rich in Various Nutrients 



ProWm 


• Fat 


Carbohydrate 


Ask 


Beans 


Bacon 


Beets 


Eggs 
Fruits 


Cheese 


Beef suet 


Bread 


Corn 


Butter 


Candies 


Green Vegetables 


Eggs 


Cheese 


Cereals 


Milk 


Fish 


Chocolate 


Cornmeal 




Lean meat 


Cornmeal 


Crackers 




Lentils 


Cream 


Dried beans 




Nuts 


Fat meat 


Dried fruits 




Oats 


Lard 


Hominy 




Oysters 


Nuts 


Honey 




Peas 


Oatmeal 


Macaroni 




Poultry 


Olives 


Oatmeal 




Protein 


Salt pork 


Potatoes 




Skim milk 




Rice 




Wheat 




Sago 

Sugar 

Syrups 








Tapioca 





BOOKS AND BULLETINS FOR REFERENCE AND 
SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 



General Reference Books 

Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. Conn. (Ginn.) 

Bacteriology, Household. Buchanan. (Macmillan.) 

Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning. Richards and Elliot. fWhit- 

comb and Barrows.) 
Cookery, Elements of the Theory and Practice of. Willianw and 

Fisher. (Macmillan.) 
Cost of Living. Richards. (Wiley.) 
Dietetics, Practical. Thompson. (Appleton.) 
Dust and Its Dangers. T. M. Prudden. (Putnams.) 
Elementary Household Chemistry. J. F. Snell. (Macmillan.) 
Food. Church. (Chapman and Hall, London.) 
Foods, Cost of. Richards. (Wiley.) 
Food and Dietetics. Hutchison. (McClurg.) 

Food and Dietetics. Norton. (American School of Home Economics. \ 
Home Economics. Parloa. (Century.) 
Feeding the Family. Rose. (Macmillan.) 
Food Products. Sherman. (Macmillan.) 
Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. Sherman. (Macmillan.) 
Source Chemistry. Bailey. (Blakiston.) 
Laboratory Hand Book for Dietetics. Rose. (Macmillan.) 



364 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Cook Books 

Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Farmer. (Little.) 

Boston Cook Book. Lincoln. (Little.) 

Century Cook Book. Arnold. (Century.) 

Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent.. Farmer. (Little.) 

Home Science Cook Book. Lincoln and Barrows. (Whitcomb.) 

New Cook Book and Marketing Guide. Parloa. (Estes.) 

Practical Cooking and Serving. Hill. (Doubleday.) 

Bulletins 

The following is a list of desirable bulletins relating to Domestic 
Science, which may be obtained free by addressing the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture or, in some cases, the state experiment station. 

Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food Farmers' Bulletin 121 

Bread and Bread Making F. B. 389 

Butter Making on the Farm F. B. 541 

Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies F. B. 203 

Care of Food in the Home F. B. 375 

Cereal Breakfast Foods. F. B. 249 

Cheese and Its Economical Use in the Diet F. B. 48-7 

Eggs and Their Uses as Food F. B. £28 

Fish as Food F. B. 86 

Food, Care of in the Home F. B. 249 

Food Customs and Diet in American Homes 

Bui., Office of Experiment Stations. 

Food, Functions and Use Bui., Office of Experiment Stations. 

Home Canning by One Period Cold-Pack Method F. B. 839 

Home Canning Manual for Vegetables and Fruits — Natural Emer- 
gency Food Garden Commission 210-220 Maryland Bldg., Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Food,. Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of F. B. 142 

Fruit, Uses of as Food F. B. 293 

Habit-Forming Agents F. B. 393 

Jelly and Jelly Making F. B. 388 

Jelly Making, Principles of Bui., Univ. of 111. 

Meat, Economic Use of in the Home F. B. 391 

Meat, Market Classes and Grades of 111. Bui. 147 

Meat — Relative Economy, Composition and Nutritive Value 

of the Various Cuts of Beef 111. Bui. 158 

Milk, Care and Use of in the Home F. B. 413 

Milk, Use of as Food F. B. 363 

Mutton and Its Value in the Diet F. B. 526 

Nuts and Their Uses as Food F. B. 332 

Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food F. B. 295 

Poultry as Food F. B. 182 

Sugar as Food F. B. 93 

Tea, Cultivation and Manufacture in U. S F. B. 234 

Use of Wheat Flour Substitutes in Baking F. B. 955 

Vegetables, Canning of F. B. 259 

Vegetables, Preparation of for the Table F. B. 256 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, 21. 
Accounts, household, 347. 
Acids, as preservatives, 192. 

Vegetables, 203. 
Air, 15. 

As leavening agent, 109. 
Albumen, 75, 77. 
Albumin, 18, 145. 
Ammonia, 7. 
Antiseptics, 5. 

Apples — 

Baked, 69. 

Dumpling, 129. 

Dutch apple cake, 129. 

Jelly, 207, 208, 209 

Pie, 233. 

Sauce, 70. 

Tapioca, 277. 
Ash constituents of food, 318. 
Asparagus, canned, 201. 
Asphyxia, 357. 
Bacon and liver, 172. 
Bacteria, 5, 189. 
Bag, for uniform, 2. 

Baking — 

Apples, 69. 
Beans, 50. 
Bread, 137, 139. 
Cake, 264. 
Custard, 89. 
Defined, 38. 
Eggs, 80. 
Fish, 246. 
Fruits, 69. 
Ham, 174. 
Macaroni, 60. 
Objects of, 141. 
Quick breads, 109. 

Baking powder — 

Action of, 113. 

Composition, 113. 

Experiments with, 113. 

Kinds, 1 14. 
Baking powder biscuits, 125, 127. 

Apple dumplings, 129. 

Dutch apple cake, 129. 

Peach short cake, 127. 

Balanced menu, 324. 



Bananas — 

Banana pie, 237. 
Bavarian cream, 296. 
Beans, baked, 50. 

Ash constituents, 318. 

String beans, canned, 201. 
Batters, 108. 

Drop batters, 218 

Thin batters, 108. 
Beating, 81. 

Beef- 
Appearance, 151. 

Broiled steak, 153. 

Cuts, 151. 

Dried, 156. 

Extract, 353. 

Juice, 353. 

Meat loaf, 163. 

Panbroiled steak, 157. 

Raw beef sandwich, 285. 

Roast, 154. 

Roast beef gravy, 155. 

Stew, 159. 

Tea, 354. 

What to serve with, 157. 
Beets, boiled, 49. 

Canned, 201. 
Berry pie, 233. 
Berry sauce, 279. 
Beverages, 101. 

Cocoa, 106. 

Chocolate, 106. 

Coffee, 105. 

Lemonade, 107. 

Tea, 104. 
Biscuit, baking powder, 125, 127 

Emergency, 125. 
Bleeding from the nose, 355. 

From cut, 356. 
Blood stains, removing, 8 
Blue points, 255. 
Bciled dinner, 162. 
Boiled dressing, 261 
Boiling — 

Cereals, 54. 
Defined, 37. 
Macaroni, 60. 
Potatoes, 42. 
Rice, 55, 56. 
Vegetables, 49 



(3fi5) 



366 



INDEX 



Bordeaux sauce, 214. 
Bouillon, 147. 
Braising, defined, 38. 
Bread- 
Baking, 137. 

Flour, 123. 

Graham, 140. 

Making, 135. 

Nut bread, 122, 126. 

Quick-process, 139. 

Slow-process, 139. 

Stale, uses, 138. 

Steamed Boston brown, 132. 

Whole- wheat ,140. 
Bread-making, 135. 

Suggestions to teachers, 138. 
Breaded veal chops, 167. 
Bread pudding, 277. 
Breakfast, planning, 334, 338. 
Breakfast foods, 52. 
Broiling, 37. 

Broiled fish, 249. 

Meat, 153. 

Pan broiling, 157, 172. 
Brooms, care of, 14. 
Broth, mutton, 354. 
Brushes, care of, 14. 
Buckwheat flour, composition, 52 

53. 
Burns, 356. 
Butter — 

Composition, 93. 

Manufacture, 93. 

Quality of, 93. 

Substitutes for, 94. 

To cream, 215. 
Butterine, 94. 
Buttermilk, 94. 
Butterscotch, 241 

Cabbage — 

Ash constituents, 318. 

Cabbage slaw, 258. 
Cake- 
Angel food, 266. 

Caramel, 273. 

Classes, 264. 

Cup, 270. 

Eggless, 275. 

Fig or date, 275. 

Gold, 273. 

Jelly roll, 267. 

Layer, 271. 

Lemon queens, 270. 

Loaf, 273. 

Nut, 274 

Plain butter, Variations for. 269. 



Cake, {continued) 

Plain, 269. 

Potato, 274. 

Spanish chocolate, 271. 

Spiced loaf, 274. 

Sponge, 265. 

Sunshine, 266. 

White layer, 272. 

With butter, 268. 

Without butter, 264. 
Cake-making — 

Baking, 265. 

Filling for, 272. 

Frosting, 268. 

Method with butter, 268. 

Method without butter, 264. 

Things essential, 264. 
Calorie portions, 316, 320. 
Candy, 239. 

Butterscotch, 241. 

Chocolate fudge, 240. 

Peanut brittle, 240. 

Pinoche, 241. 

Pulled taffy, 241. 

Sea foam, 241. 
Canning, 192. 

Asparagus, 201. 

Beets, 201. 

Corn, 201. 

Fruit, 189. 

Jars for, 193. 

Methods, 194. 

Peaches, 196. 

Pears, 196. 

Peas, 201. 

Plums, 197. 

Strawberries, 197. 

String beans, 201. 

Tomatoes, 201. 

Vegetables, 198. 
Caper sauce. 247. 
Carbohydrates — 

Cereals, 52, 58. 

Described, 19, 21. 

Fruits, 67. 

Heat value of, 315. 

Potatoes, 37. 

Starch, 38. 

Sugar, 238. 

Vegetables, 44. 
Carbon, 27. 
Carbon dioxide, 15. 

As leavening agent, 109. 
Carpets, care of, 14. 
Carrots, boiled, 49. 
Catsup, tomato, 214. 
Cauliflower and tomatoes, 49. 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



3W 



Cereals — 

Composition, 52. 

Cooking, 54. 

Food value, 53. 

Left-overs of, 57. 
Charlottes — 

Charlotte Russe, 295. 

Pineapple or strawberry, 296. 
Chartreuse of rice, 163. 
Cheese, 94. 

Baked with macaroni, 60. 

Cheese balls, 100. 

Composition, 97. 

Cooking, 98. 

Cottage cheese, 99. 

Food value, 97. 

Grating, 60. 

Kinds, 95. 

Manufacture, 95. 

Souffle, 99, 186. 

Cheese straws, 99. 

Welsh rarebit, 100. 
Chicken — 

Broiled, 178. 

Croquettes, 227. 

Cutting up, 177. 

Dressing, 175. 

Food value, 177. 

Fricasseed, 179. 

Fried, 178. 

Jellied, 179. 

Pie, 179. 

Roast, 177. 

Selection, 175. 

Stuffing, 176. 
Chocolate, 104. 

Cake, 271. 

Cream pudding, 2 

Frosting, 272. 

Ice Cream, 293. 

Pie, 237. 

Sauce, 279. 
Cinnamon rolls, 142. 
Citron, 276. 
Clams, 255. 
Cleansing agents, 6. 
Clover leaf rolls, 142 
Coal as fuel, 29. 
Cocktails, fruit, 71. 
Cocoa, 104. 

Stains, 8. 
Codfish puff, 251. 
Condiments, 210. 
Coffee — 

Adulteration, 103. 

After-dinner, 106. 

Care of, 103. 



Coffee, (continued) 

Composition, 103. 

Filtered, 105. 

Food value, 103. 

Kinds, 103. 

Percolated, 106. 
Coffee stains, removing, 8, 
Coffee cake, 142. 
Cold storage, 77, 191. 
Combining mixtures, 81. 
Combustion, 27. 
Conserve, 206. 

Big plum, 208. 
Consomme, 147 
Cookies — 

Brownies, 219. 

Chocolate, 217, 218. 

Norwegian, 216. 

Oatmeal, 219. 

Peanut, 219. 

Proportions, 215. 

Rocks, 218. 

Sour-milk, 216. 

Sugar, 215. 

Variation, 215. 
Cooking — 

Cereals, 54 

Defined, 37. 

Methods, 37, 153 

Objects of, 37, 39, 141, 146. 

Puddings, 276. 

Rice, 55. 

Starch, 39. 

Uniform for, 1. 

Vegetables, 47. 
Corn — 

And pimentos, 50 

Bread, 119. 

Canning, 201. 

Composition, 45, 52, 117. 

Cream of corn soup, 74. 

Creole green corn, 50. 

Food value, 118. 

Fritters, 223. 

Kinds, 117. 

On cob, 49. 

Oysters, 223. 

Pop corn balls, 242. 

Scalloped corn, 186. 
Corn products, 118. 
Cornmeal, 118. 

Mush, 57. 

Muffins, 119. 
Cornstarch, 118. 
Cottage cheese, 99. 
Cranberry sauce, 70. 



368 



INDEX 



Cream, 92, 291. 

Bavarian, 296. 

Composition, 92. 

Cream pie, 237. 

Standard, 92. 

Whipping, 92, 295. 
Creaming — 

Codfish, 252. 

Creamed potatoes, 43. 

Finnan haddie, 253. 

Oysters, 256. 
Cream of wheat, 56. 
Croquettes — 

Chicken, 227. 

Fish, 253. 

Meat, 227. 

Methods of making, 226. 

Potato, 227. 

Rice, 228. 

Salmon, 227. 
Crumbs, to butter, 60. 
Croutons, 74. 
Crown roast, 169. 
Cucumber pickles, 213. 
Currants, to clean, 276. 

Currant jelly, 207. 
Custards, 292. 

Baked, 89. 

Caramel, 90. 

Chocolate, 90. 

Custard pie, 236. 

Soft custard, 90. 

Souffle, 90. 
Cutlets, lobster, 228. 
Cutting, 82. 

Date muffins, 116. 
Desserts, 334. 

Cold, 280. 

Frozen, 288, 295. 

Frozen puddings, 291. 

Hot, 276. 

Ices, 286. 

Ice creams, 290. 
Dietaries, 314. 

For the sick, 350. 

Standard, 317, 325. 
Digestion, 62. 

Outline of, 64. 

Process of, 62. 

Purpose of, 62. 

Relation to cookery, 63. 
Dining room, 298. 
Dinner, 305, 332, 340. 

Aids for menus, 340. 

Boiled, 162. 

Formal, 310. 



Dinner, (continued) 

Informal, 303. 
Dishes, 300. 

Washing, rules, 25. 
Disinfecting, 5. 
Double boiler, 54. 
Dough — 

Baking powder biscuit, 127, 129. 

Bread, 136. 

Cookie, 215. 

Defined, 108. 

Kinds, 108. 

Soft, 123. 
Doughnuts, — 

Chocolate, 222. 

Potato, 223. 

Sour-milk, 222. 
Drawn butter sauce, 247. 
Dressings, for fish, 247. 

For oysters, 178. 

For salads, 261. 
Dried beef, 156. 
Dried fruits, 67, 69. 
Dumplings, 161. 

Apple dumplings, 129. 
Dust, 4. 

Dust cloths, care of, 14. 
Dutch apple cake, 129. 

Earache, 357. 
Eggs — 

A la goldenrod, 85. 

A la Suisse, 79. 

Baked, 80. 

Beating, 81. 

Care of, 76. 

Composition, 75. 

Cooking, 78. 

Eggnog, 353. 

Eggs in a nest, 353. 

Food value, 76. 

Hard-cooked, 79. 

Omelets, 82. 

Poached, 79. 

Preserving, 76. 

Scrambled, 84. 

Soft-cooked, 78. 

Structure, 75. 

Stuffed, 80. 

Testing, 76. 
Eggplant, 51. 
Egg sandwich, 285. 
Eggless cake, 275. 
Electric appliances, 35. 
Electric stove, 34. 
Emergencies and first aid, 355. 
English style of serving, 302. 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



369 



Extract, beef, 353. 
Eye trouble, 357. 



Factors of meal plans, 326. 
Climate, 327. 
Harmony, 328. 
Occupation, 327 
Variety, 329 
Fainting, 355. 
Fats — 

Butter fat, 93. 
Cream, 92. 
Clarifying, 220. 
Denned, 21. 
Food value, 220. 
Heat value, 315. 
Meat, 145. 
Trying out, 220. 
Filling, for cakes, 272. 

For sandwiches, 282. 
Fire, 28, 30. 
Fireless cooker, 35. 
First aid, 333. 
Fish— 

And macaroni, 253. 
Baked, 246. 
Balls, 252. 
Boiled, 250. 
Broiled, 249. 
Composition, 243. 
Cooking, 245. 
Creamed codfish, 252. 
Creamed Finnan haddie, 253 
Croquettes, 253. 
Dressing for, 247. 
Finnan haddie, 253. 
Food value, 244. 
Fried, 249. 
Kinds of, 243. 
Preparing, 245. 
Sauted, 249. 
Salmon mousse, 250. 
To tell fresh, 244. 
Using left-overs, 252. 
Floating Island, 280. 
Floors, 13. 
Flour- 
Composition, 124. 
Kinds and grades, 123, 124. 
Manufacture, 123. 
To tell good flour, 124. 
Folding, 81. 
Foods — 

Calorie portions, 320. 
Classes, 18. 
Composition, 19. 
Defined, 18. 



Foods, (continued) 
Functions, 19. 
How digested, 62. 
Heat value, of 315. 
Nutritive ratio, 317. 
Requirements for the body, 314. 
Selection, 314. 
Frappe, 286. 
Freezer, ice cream, 287. 
.Freezing, 287. 

Directions for, 287. 
Preserving bv, 190. 
French dressing, 261. 
Fricasseeing, chicken, 179. 

Defined, 38. 
Fritter batter, 223. 
Fritters, corn, 223. 
French toast, 80. 
Frogs' legs, fried, 250. 
Frost bites, 357. 
Frosting, 268. 

Chocolate, 272 
Cooked, 272. 
Orange, 270. 
Uncooked, 267. 
Frozen mixtures, 286, 295 
Fruits — 

Canning, 192. 
Composition, 67. 
Cocktails, 71. 
Cooking, 69.* 
Food value, 68. 
Rules for eating, 68. 
Selection for canning, 194 
t ruit ice cream, 290 
Fruit roll, 126. 
Fruit stains, removing, 8 
Frying — . 

Cautions in, 222. 

Chicken, 178. 

Cooked mixtures, 226. 

Defined, 38. 

Fish, 249. 

Oysters, 256. 

Tests for temperature, 221 

Uncooked mixtures, 220. 
Fudge, 240, 241. 
Fuels, 29. 

Garbage can, care of, 12 
Gas as fuel, 30. 
Gasoline, 30. 
Gas range, 32. 
Gelatin — 

Directions for use, 180. 

Effects of water on, 180 

Food value, 180. 



370 



INDEX 



Gelatin, (continued) 

Lemon jelly, 181. 

Meat jellies, 183. 

Orange jelly, 182. 

Pistachio salad. 182. 

Snow pudding, 182. 

Source and manufacture, 180. 

Tomato jelly salad, 182. 
Germs (see Bacteria). 
Gingerbread, soft molasses, 121. 

Hot water, 122. 
Ginger snaps, 217. 
Glucose, 118. 
Graham flour, 123. 
Graham muffins, 119. 
Grape, fudge, 209. 
Grapes, spiced, 208. 
Grass stains, removing, 8. 
Gravy, roast beef, 155. 
Greens, 259. 
Griddle cakes, 111. 
Gruel, barley, 352. 

Cracker, 352. 

Ham, baked, 174. 

Broiled, 172. 

What to serve with, 172. 
Hamburg steak, 158. 
Hard sauce, 130. 
Hash, browned, 162. 
Heat, 27. 

Effect of on albumen, 77. 

Heat value of food, 315. 
Heat stroke, 355. 
Himmels futter, 278. 
Hallandaise sauce, 247. 
Home management, 346. 
Hominy, 118. 
Household accounts, 347. 
Housekeepers' directions, 3, 24. 

Ice box, care of, 10. 
Ice for freezing, 287. 
Ices 286. 

Lemon, 288. 

Orange, 289. 

Orange milk sherbet, 289. 

Three-of-a-kind sherbet, 289. 
Ice creams, 290. 

Caramel, 293. 

Chocolate, 293. 

Classes, 290. 

Peppermint, 294. 

Shaping, 292. 

Strawberrv, 294. 

Vanilla, 293. 
Infection, 356. 



Ink stains, removing, 8. 
Intermittent cooking, 198. 
Invalid cooking, 350. 

Dietaries, 350. 

Rules for serving, 351. 

Jam, 206. 

Raspberry, 208. 
Jars for canning, 193. 
Jelly (fruit), 202. 

Apple, 207. 

Apple and raspberry, 209. 

Causes of poor, 205. 

Currant, 207. 

Plum and apple, 208. 

Quince and apple, 208. 
Jelly (gelatin), 180. 

Lemon, 181. 

Orange, 182. 
Jelly making, 202. 

Extracting fruit juice, 203. 

Proportions for, 204. 

Utensils for, 203. 
Jelly, oatmeal, 352. 
Telly roll, 267. 
Junket, 183. 

Kerosene, 7, 29, 35. 

Lamb, 164. 

Chops, 166. 

Stew, 161. 

Roast, 167. 

What to serve with, 166. 
Layer cakes, 271. 
Leavening agents, 108. 
Left-overs — 

Cereal, 57. 

For luncheon, 336. 

Meat, 159. 
Lemon — 

Ice, 288. 

Jelly, 181. 

Lemonade, 107. 

Pie, 236. 

Sauce, 130. 

Linens, 299. 

Liver and bacon, 172. 

Lobsters, 255. 

Lobster a la Newburg, 257. 

Lobster cutlets, 228. 

Luncheons, 307, 336. 
Planning, 336. 
Service at, 307. 

Without and with maid, 307, 
308. 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



371 



Macaroni, 59. 

Composition, 52, 60. 

Cooking, 60. 

Manufacturing, 59. 
Macaroni and dried beef, 61. 
Maitre d' hotel butter, 155. 
Marketing, 342. 
Marmalade, 206. 
Mayonnaise dressing, 262. 
Measures, table of, 22. 
Measuring, directions, 22. 
Meats — 

Beef, 151. 

Care of, 153. 

Composition, 145. 

Croquettes, 227. 

Food value, 146. 

Lamb, 164. 

Loaf, 163. 

Sandwich, 285. 

Mutton, 164. 

Objects of cooking, 146. 

Structure, 144. 

Substitutes, 184. 

Veal, 164. 
Meat jellies, 183. 
Meat soups. 147. 
Menus, 326. 

Balanced, 324. 

Foundation, 331. 

Rules for building, 330. 
Meringue, 236. 
Mildew, 8. 
Milk- 
Adulteration of, 87. 

Composition, 86. 

Condensed, 89. 

Food value, 87. 

Pasteurization, 88, 353. 

Purchase and care, 88. 

Souring, 87. 
Mince meat, 234. 
Mineral matter, 21, 146. 
Milk products, 92. 

Composition, 93, 97. 
Mint sauce, 168. 
Moisture in food, 191. 
Molds, 5. 
Mousse, 291. 

Neapolitan, 296. 

Salmon, 250. 
Muffins, 114. 

Blueberry, 115. 

Cornmeal, 119. 

Date, 116. 

Eggless, 119. 

Graham, 119. 



Muffins, {continued) 

Invalid, 115. 

Plain egg, 114. 

Rice, 115. 
Mushroom sauce, 158. 
Mustard, 173. 
Mutton, 164. 

Broth, 354* 

Cuts, 165, 166. 

What to serve with, 166. 

Neapolitan mousse, 296. 
Noodle soup, 150. 
Nut bread, 126, 140. 

Brown nut bread, 122. 
Nut Cake, 274. 
Nut ice cream, 291. 
Nutritive ratio, 317. 

Oatmeal — 

Ash constituents, 318. 

Food value, 52, 53. 

Oatmeal cookies, 219- 

Oatmeal mush, 57. 

Oatmeal jelly, 352. 
Oils, defined, 21. 

For salads, 260. 

Source, 220. 
Oil stove, 35. 
Oleomargarine, 94 
Omelets, 82. 

Fancy, 82. 

French, 84. 

Puffy, 82. 
Orange — 

Ash constituents, 318. 

Orange ice, 289. 

Orange jelly, 182. 
Oven temperature for — 

Quick breads, 110. 
Oxidation, 15, 28. 
Oysters — 

Creamed, 256. 

Fried, 256. 

Food value, 254. 

Oyster dressing, 178. 

Oyster stew, 256. 

Oysters in the half shell, 257. 

Preparing, 255. 

Source, 254. 

Scalloped, 257. 

Packing a freezer, 288. 
Pan broiling, 38, 157. 

Panbroiled steak, 157, 
Parfait, 291. 
Pantry, care of, 12, 



372 



INDEX 



Parker house rolls, 142. 
Pasteurizing, 88, 353. 

Pastry — 

Essentials, 229. 

Food value, 235. 

Pastry flour, 123, 

Plain pastry, 232. 
Peaches, canned, 196. 

Peach pickles, 213. 
Peanut cookies, 219. 
Peanut brittle, 240. 
Pears, canned, 196. 

Pickled, 213. 
Peas, canned, 51, 201. 

Cream of pea soup, 74. 

Fresh, 51. 
Pectin, 202. 

Peppermint cream, 294. 
Pickle, sweet, for fruit, 212. 

Sweet, for vegetables, 212. 

Pickles — 

Cucumber, 213. 

Kinds, 211. 

Materials for, 211. 

Oil, 214. 

Pickled green tomatoes, 212. 

Sweet peach, 213. 

Sweet pickled pears, 213. 

Watermelon, 213. 
Pickling, 210. 

Directions for, 212. 

Pies — 

Apple, 233. 

Banana, 237. 

Berry, 233. 

Chocolate, 237, 

Cocoanut, 237. 

Cream, 237. 

Custard, 236. 

Lemon, 236. 

Making the pastry, 229. 

Mince, 234. 

Mock cherry, 233. 

One-crust, 232. 

Pumpkin, 237. 

Rhubarb, 233. 
Pigs in blanket, 174. 
Pinoche, 241. 
Plums, canned, 197. 

Plum and apple jelly, 208. 

Plumbing, 9. 
Poisons, 358. 
Pop corn, 117. 

Pop corn balls, 242. 
Pop-overs, 110. 



Pork- 
Appearance, 170. 

Baked ham, 174. 

Broiled ham, 172. 

Cuts, 170. 

Food value, 170, 307. 

Fried pork, 174. 

Liver and bacon, 172. 

Pigs in blanket, 174. 

Pork chops, 173. 

What to serve with, 172. 
Potatoes — 

Ash constituents, 318. 

Au gratin, 43. 

Baked, 36. 

Boiled, 42. 

Creamed, 43. 

Cream of potato soup, 74. 

Croquettes, 227. 

Delmonico, 43. 

French fried, 228. 

Glaced sweet, 43. 

Julienne, 228. 

Mashed, 42. 

Potato cakes, 42, 274. 

Riced, 42. 

Scalloped, 185. 

Stuffed, 36. 

Sweet, potatoes, 42, 43. 
Poultry — 

Broiled chicken, 178. 

Chicken pie, 179. 

Cutting, 177. 

Dressing, 175. 

Food value, 177. 

Fricasseed, 179. 

Fried, 178. 

Selection, 175. 

Stuffing, 176. 

Trussing, 177. 

What to serve with, 177„ 
Preserving — 

Eggs, 76. 

Fruit, 189. 

Methods, 190. 

Reasons, 190. 
Preservatives, 5, 191. 
Protein- 
Beef, 151, 157, 159. 

Classes, 18, 145. 

Eggs, 75. 

Fish, 243. 

Gelatin, 180. 

Heat value of 315. 

Lamb, 164. 

Meat, 144. 

Milk, 86. 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



373 



Protein, {continued) 

Mutton, 164. 

Pork, 170. 

Shellfish, 254. 

Veal, 164. 
Prunes, stewed, 70. 

Prune whip, 281. 
Puddings — 

Apple tapioca, 277. 

Bread, 277. 

Chocolate cream, 280. 

Cooking of, 276. 

Frozen, 291. 

Himmels futter, 278. 

Plain steamed, 278. 

Preparing materials for, 276. 

Queen's pudding, 277. 

Snow ball, 278. 

Snow, 182. 

Suet, 134, 277. 
• Yorkshire, 155. 
Punch, 286. 

Quick breads, 108, 113, 117, 121, 

123. 
Baking of, 109. 
Batters and doughs, defined. 

108. 
Corn bread, 119. 
Gingerbread, 121. 
Griddle cakes, 111. 
Materials for, 108. 
Mixing, 109. 
Muffins, 114, 119. 
Pop-overs, 110. 
Waffles, 112. 
Quince and apple jelly, 208. 

Raisins, to clean, 276. 
Ranges, coal, 30. 

Gas, 32. 
Raspberry jam, 208. 
Refrigeration, 190. 
Rhubarb pie, 233. 
Rice — 

Boiled, 56. 

Composition, 52, 53. 

Croquettes, 228. 

Food value, 55. 

Muffins, 115. 

Steamed, 56. 
Roasts — 

Beef, 154. 

Chicken, 177. 

Crown, 169. 

Lamb, 167. 

What to serve with, 157. 



Roasting, defined, 37. 
Meat, 153. 

Rocks, 218. 

Rolls- 
Cinnamon, 142. 
Clover leaf, 142. 
German coffee cake, 142. 
Parker House, 142. 

Roll lesson, suggestions to teachers. 
141. 

Rosettes, Swedish, 225. 

Russian style of serving, 302. 

Rust, iron, removing, 7. 

Rye flour, food value, 52, 318. 

Salads — 

Classes of, 260. 
Essentials for, 259 
Greens for, 259. 
Oils for, 260. 
Pistachio, 182. 
Points in favor of, 259. 
Salad combinations, 263. 
Tomato jelly, 182. 
What to serve with, 261. 
Salmon, croquettes, 227. 
Loaf, 251. 
Mousse, 250. 
Souffle, 186. 
Sal soda, 6. 
Salt, as a condiment, 210. 

As a preservative, 192. 
Sandwiches — 

Chopped meat, 285. 
Combinations for, 283. 
Egg, 285. 
Materials for, 282. 
Method of making, 282. 
Raw beef, 285. 
Serving, 283. 
Shapes of, 282. 
Sauces — 

Apple, 70. 
Berry, 279. 
Bordeaux, 214. 
Caper, 247. 
Chocolate, 279. 
Cranberry, 70. 
Drawn butter, 247. 
Foaming, 279. 
For fish, 247. 
For puddings, 279. 
Hard, 130, 279. 
Hollandaise, 247. 
Lemon, 130. 
Mint, 168. 
Mushroom, 158. 



374 



INDEX 



Sauces, (continued) 

Plain, 279. 

Tartar, 248. 

Tomato, 50, 61, 84. 

Vanilla, 130. 

White, 48. 
Sauteing, denned, 38. 
Scalloped dishes, 184. 
Corn, 186. 
In menu, 340. 
Oysters, 257. 
Tomatoes, 185. 
Sea foam, 241. 
Seasoning, for soups, 148. 
Serving, rules for, 303. 

Serving the sick, 351. 

Styles of 303. 

With a maid, 308. 

Without a maid, 303. 
Servants, 347. 
Setting the table, 301. 
Shellfish- 
Clams, 255. 

Composition, 243, 

Lobsters, 255, 257. 

Oysters, 254, 256. 

Shrimps, 256, 258. 
Sherbets, 286. 

Orange milk, 289. 

Sherbets, 289. 

Three-of-a-kind, 289. 

Shortcakes — 

Berry, 128. 

Peach, 127. 
Shrimps, 256. 

Shrimp wiggle, 258. 
Sick, food for, 328. 
Silverware, 300. 

Use of, 311. 
Sink, care of, 11. 
Skimmilk, 92. 

Smoke, as a preservative, 192. 
Soap, 7. 
Soda, 121. 
Souffle, 185. 

Cheese, 99, 186. 
Custard, 90. 
Salmon, 186. 

Soups — 

Bouillon, 149. 
Brown soup stock, 149. 
Clearing, 149. 
Cream of corn, 74. 
Cream of pea, 74. 
Cream of tomato, 74. 
Food value of, 73, 147. 



Soups, (continued) 

For dinner, 334. 

Kinds of, 72, 147. 

Proportions, for, 73, 148- 

Stock soups, 147. 

Vegetable soups, 150. 

Without stock, 73. 
Southern spoon bread, 120. 
Spaghetti, 59. 
Spices, 210. 

As preservatives, 192. 
Spiced grapes, 208. 
Sponge, 136. 
Stains, removal of, 7. 
Starch, 38. 

Cornstarch, 118. 

Steak — 

Broiled, 153. 

Hamburg, 158. 

Panbr oiled, 157. 
Steam, as leavening agent, 109. 
Steamed Boston brown bread, 132. 
Steaming — 

Cereals, 54. 

Defined, 37. 

Mixtures, 131. 

Puddings, 276. 
Sterilization, 88, 192, 198. 
Stewing — 

Beef stew, 159. 

Defined, 37, 159. 

Fruits, 69. 

Lamb stew, 161. 

Prunes, 70. 

Rice, 56. 
Stirring, 81. 

Storing canned goods, 199. 
Strawberry — 

Ash constituents, 318. 

Canned, 197. 

Ice cream, 294. 
Stuffing, 178. 
Suet pudding, 277. 
Sugar — 

As a preservative, 191. 

Effeet of heat on, 239. 

Food value, 239. 

Kinds, 238. 

Manufacture, 238. 
Sugar beets, 238. 
Sugar cane, 238. 
Sweet corn, 117. 
Sweet potatoes, 41, 42. 

Baked, 43. 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



375 



Table- 
Appointments, 298. 

Care, 12. 

Etiquette, 310. 

Selection, 339. 

Setting, 301. 
Tablecloth, 300. 
Tapioca, apple, 277. 
Tea- 
Adulterations, 102. 

Beef tea 354. 

Food value, 102. 

Kinds, 101. 

Sources, 101. 
Teachers, bread-making suggestions, 
138. 

Roll lesson suggestions, 142. 
Timbales, Swedish, 224. 
Timetables for cooking — 

Bread, 137. 

Cereals, 54. 

Meat, 153. 

Quick breads, 110. 

Vegetables, 48. 
Toast — 

Dry, 351. 

Milk, 352. 

Water, 352. 
Traps, 9. 
Trichinosis, 170. 

Uniform, cooking, 1. 
For a waitress, 302. 

Vanilla sauce, 130. 
Veal, 164. 

Birds, 168. 

Breaded veal chops, 167. 

Cuts, 164. 

Loaf, 169. 

What to serve with, 166. 
Vegetables, 44. 

Ash constituents, 318. 

Canning, 198. 

Classes, 44. • 



Vegetables, {continued) 

Composition, 44. 

Cooking, 47. 

Food value, 46. 

Selection, 47, 198. 
Vegetable soup, 150. 
Ventilation, 16. 
Vermicelli, 60. 
Vinegar, 210. 

Waffles, 112. 
Waitress work, 302. 

Duties, of waitress, 308. 
Water, 16, 146. 

As a cleansing agent, 6. 

Composition, 16. 
Water ices, 286. 
Water glass, 77. 
Watermelon cocktail, 71. 
Watermelon pickles, 213. 
Welsh rarebit, 100. 
Wheat, 58. 

Breakfast food, 53. 

Cream of wheat, 56. 

Flour, 123. 

Food value, 53, 59. 

Structure, 58. 
White sauces, 48. 

Medium white, 48. 

Proportion with scalloped dish- 
es, 184. 

Thick white, 48. 

Thin white, 48. 
Whole-wheat bread, 140. 
Wood, as fuel, 29. 
Woodwork, care of, 13, 14. 

Yams, 41. 
Yeast, 5, 133. 

Action of, 134. 

Experiments with, 134. 

Forms of, 133. 
Yorkshire pudding, 155. 

Zweiback, 143. 



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